Papers by Viola C. Schmid
Southern African Humanities, 2016
Elands Bay Cave (EBC) is one of the key sites for the analysis of the Late Pleistocene/Holocene r... more Elands Bay Cave (EBC) is one of the key sites for the analysis of the Late Pleistocene/Holocene record in southern Africa. It typifies an area of study, the West Coast of South Africa, which benefits from a long history of research, from the 1960s until today. The 2011 project of EBC was initiated within the framework of the Middle Stone Age (MSA) research at Diepkloof Rock Shelter (DRS). The objective was to build a local synthesis and a complementary picture on the basis of these two sites located 14 km apart from one another, on the left bank of the Verlorenvlei. The excavation at EBC took place during May 2011 with the aim of clarifying the site formation processes, the chronology of the Late Pleistocene occupations as well as the nature of the technological sequence. Our excavation focused on a 1.2 m deep profile that records two main occupational phases separated by a significant hiatus: (1) the initial phase represents an early MSA technology (previously called ‘MSA 1’ by T. ...
South African Archaeological Bulletin, 2015
In this paper, we introduce a recently initiated research project conducted at Bushman Rock Shelt... more In this paper, we introduce a recently initiated research project conducted at Bushman Rock Shelter, on the northeastern edge of the Highveld plateau in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Previous excavations carried out at the site during the 1960s and 1970s exposed a deep and well-stratified sequence of c. 7 metres of archaeological deposits associated with Later and Middle Stone Age occupations (LSA and MSA). Owing to the lack of contextual information, Bushman Rock Shelter remains poorly studied despite recording cultural and palaeoenvironmental data that are key for the understanding of the South African Stone Age. Here, we propose a synthesis of the 1967–1976 excavations led by Hannes Eloff and provide general background information that will serve as a reference for future research. Our synthesis is based on previous publications by Ina Plug, as well as on Eloff ’s field diaries, which were thought to be lost. We complement these observations with data from our own 2014 field se...
Archaeologia Austriaca, 2021
Das Mittelpaläolithikum in Österreich steht mangels diagnostischer Inventare aus gesicherten stra... more Das Mittelpaläolithikum in Österreich steht mangels diagnostischer Inventare aus gesicherten stratigraphischen Kontexten im Schatten der namhaften jungpaläolithischen Fundstellen. Aus dem Burgenland wurde bisher noch keine einzige Besiedlung zu Zeiten des Neandertalers vermeldet. Bei Oberflächenaufsammlungen an der im Neolithikum genutzten Rohmateriallagerstätte Csaterberg wurden jedoch Steinartefakte aufgefunden, die auf eine mittelpaläolithische Präsenz hindeuteten. Basierend auf einer Merkmalanalyse wurde eine techno-typologische Untersuchung des Fundmaterials durchgeführt, um primär festzustellen, ob tatsächlich von einer Begehung im Mittelpaläolithikum ausgegangen werden kann. Des Weiteren wurde angestrebt, die steintechnologischen Eigenheiten des Inventars hervorzuheben und Aussagen über Mobilitätsstrategien zu treffen. Abschließend sollten die Ergebnisse zu einer Einbindung der Fundstelle in die chronokulturelle Gliederung des Mittelpaläolithikums führen. Taphonomisch, aber vor allem techno-typologisch und auch technoökonomisch, konnte eine Begehung des Csaterberges im Mittelpaläolithikum identifiziert werden, womit erstmals im Burgenland ein Beleg für diese Zeitstufe vorliegt. Das mittelpaläolithische Inventar zeichnet sich durch die Herstellung von bifaziell formüberarbeiteten Werkzeugen, die Dominanz von Schabern und die vorwiegende Grundformenproduktion mittels des Levalloiskonzepts aus. Trotz der geringen Artefaktanzahl konnten viele Gemeinsamkeiten mit anderen Fundstellen des österreichischen Mittelpaläolithikums aufgezeigt werden. Der überregionale zentraleuropäische Vergleich deutet auf eine Zuweisung des Inventars in die Phase des späten Neandertalers. Damit trägt der Csaterberg zum besseren Verständnis des österreichischen Mittelpaläolithikums bei und bereichert die Mittelpaläolithforschung in Österreich um eine weitere, vorerst zumindest typo-chronologisch datierbare Fundstelle.
Archaeologia Austriaca, 2021
In diesem Artikel werden Belege für eine Nutzung der lithischen Ressourcen (Opalit/Limnosilizit) ... more In diesem Artikel werden Belege für eine Nutzung der lithischen Ressourcen (Opalit/Limnosilizit) der Csaterberge vom Mittelpaläolithikum über das Jungpaläolithikum und das Neolithikum bis in die Kupferzeit angeführt. Bisher ist eine Verbreitung dieses Rohmaterials in einem Umkreis von etwa 100 km nachgewiesen. Die Csaterberge sind somit (gemeinsam mit dem Becken von Rein in der Steiermark) zu den beiden wichtigsten prähistorisch genutzten Silizit-Rohmaterialressourcen Südostösterreichs zu zählen. Zugleich liegt damit der erste Nachweis für das Mittelpaläolithikum im Bundesland Burgenland bzw. überhaupt der erste gesicherte Beleg für ein dortiges Paläolithikum vor.
African Archaeological Review, 2021
Over the past decade, the increasing wealth of new archaeological data on the Middle Stone Age (M... more Over the past decade, the increasing wealth of new archaeological data on the Middle Stone Age (MSA) in Senegal and Mali has broadened our understanding of West Africa’s contributions to cultural developments. Within the West African sequence, the phase of Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS 3, ca. 59-24 ka) yielded so far the best known and extensive archaeological information. The site of Toumboura III encompasses an occupation dated by optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) to between 40 ± 3 ka and 30 ± 3 ka. It provides the largest, well-dated, and stratified lithic assemblage in West Africa for the MSA and sheds light on an unprecedented cultural expression for this period, adding to the notable diversity of the late MSA in this region. We conducted a technological analysis of the lithic components following the chaîne opératoire approach. The lithic assemblage features a prevalence of bifacial technology and the exploitation of flakes as blanks for tool production. The craftspeople m...
In southern Africa, key technologies and symbolic behaviors develop as early as the later Middle ... more In southern Africa, key technologies and symbolic behaviors develop as early as the later Middle Stone Age in MIS5. These innovations arise independently in various places, contexts and forms, until their full expression during the Still Bay and the Howiesons Poort. The Middle Stone Age sequence from Diepkloof Rock Shelter, on the West Coast of the region, preserves archaeological proxies that help unravelling the cultural processes at work. This unit yields one of the oldest abstract engraving so far discovered in Africa, in the form of a rhomboid marking on the cortical surface of an ungulate long bone shaft. The comprehensive analysis of the lithic artefacts and ochre pieces found in association with the engraved bone documents the transport of rocks over long distance (>20km), the heat treatment of silcrete, the coexistence of seven lithic reduction strategies (including the production of bladelets and the manufacture of unifacial and bifacial points), the use of adhesives an...
Ethnoarchaeology, 2020
ABSTRACT This article presents a pilot experiment conducted to better understand how Middle Pleis... more ABSTRACT This article presents a pilot experiment conducted to better understand how Middle Pleistocene hominins might have processed and exploited elephants using simple stone and bone tools. The experiment was conducted in three phases: (1) production of small, flake-based stone tools, (2) butchery of the lower hind-leg of an Indian elephant, and (3) manufacture of bone tools from the tibia. The experiment shows it is possible to cut through elephant skin in under four minutes using small chipped-stone flakes; disarticulating the astragalus from the tibia is relatively easy, whereas disarticulating the astragalus from the other tarsals is difficult; breaking open an elephant tibia is possible in two minutes; the tibia of the elephant used in the experiment lacked a hollow marrow cavity; extraction of the large fatty cushion encased in the metatarsals and phalanges required several hours; and elephant bone tools are useful for retouching lithic materials of differing quality.
Archaeologia Austriaca, 2019
Die gut datierte stratigrafische Abfolge von Willendorf II ist eine Referenzfundstelle für das Ju... more Die gut datierte stratigrafische Abfolge von Willendorf II ist eine Referenzfundstelle für das Jungpaläolithikum im Allgemeinen und das Gravettien im Speziellen. Im Jahr 1993 führte ein gemeinsames Team des Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique (Brüssel, Belgien) und der Universität Wien eine Neuuntersuchung an der seit Ende des 19. Jhs. bekannten Löss-Fundstelle im Donautal durch. Bei diesen Grabungsaktivitäten wurden 391 Fundstücke geborgen, die vorwiegend aus den archäologischen Horizonten (AH) 6 und 8 stammen. Im Zuge der hier vorliegenden Arbeit wurde eine technologische Analyse der Steinartefakte basierend auf einem merkmalanalytischen Aufnahmesystem durchgeführt. Diese Studie ergab, dass die Inventare der beiden AH sich in Bezug auf Rohmaterialnutzung und Werkzeugbestand markant voneinander unterscheiden. AH 6 weist einen hohen Anteil an nicht-lokalem baltischem Feuerstein auf. Die unidirektional ausgerichtete Abbaustrategie zielte auf die Produktion von Lamellen besonders an hochwertigen Rohmaterialien ab, um diese zu Rückenelementen, die als Projektile Verwendung fanden, weiterzuverarbeiten. Neben der unidirektionalen, volumetrischen Lamellenabbaustrategie wurden auch Stichel als Lamellenkerne genutzt. Das Werkzeugspektrum enthält neben den Rückenelementen Stichel, Kratzer und Kantenretuschen. In AH 8 dominieren lokale Rohmaterialien wie Quarzit und Kieselkalk. Die unidirektional ausgerichtete Abbaustrategie zielte auf die Herstellung von Klingen ab. Der Werkzeugbestand umfasst eine Bandbreite an verschiedenen Werkzeugtypen. Am häufigsten treten Ausgesplitterte Stücke auf, des Weiteren wurden Spitzklingen, Stichel, Kratzer, Kantenretuschen, Endretuschen, ein Bohrer mit Kantenretusche und ein gezähntes Stück festgestellt. Die Unterschiede in AH 6 und AH 8 sowie die Ähnlichkeiten von AH 6 zu AH 5 und AH 6 der Altgrabungen signalisieren, dass AH 6 und AH 8 der Grabung 1993 nicht derselben Phase des Gravettien angehören. Die Jäger und Sammler zur Zeit von AH 6 weisen ein technologisches, technoökonomisches und soziotechnologisches Verhalten auf, das eher einem frühen Gravettien entsprechen und den Innovationen des Pavlovien vorausgehen dürfte, während der AH 8 den Forschungskonsens bestätigend mit den Charakteristika des Pavlovien übereinstimmt.
Lithic Technology, 2019
Irura Peckham & Peckham 1901 is a salticid spider genus which is distributed in the Oriental regi... more Irura Peckham & Peckham 1901 is a salticid spider genus which is distributed in the Oriental region (World Spider Catalog 2019). Up to now, 16 species are known in it, and of these, no Japanese ones are included. Synageles Simon 1876 is an ant-like salticid spider genus which is distributed in Holarctic region, and up to now, 19 species are known in it (World Spider Catalog 2019). From Japan, only the generic type species S. venator (Lucas 1836) has been known. After examining the materials obtained from Japan, I recognized the occurrence of two newly recorded salticid species, Irura yueluensis (Peng & Yin 1991) and Synageles hilarulus (C. L. Koch 1846). Here, I present the morphological characteristics of them using Japanese specimens. Specimens were preserved in 80% ethanol, and their morphological features were observed under Leica M125C stereomicroscope. One male and one female specimens of each species are deposited in the collection of the Department of Zoology, National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo. The following abbreviations are used: ALE, anterior lateral eye; AME, anterior median eye; PLE, posterior lateral eye; PME, posterior median eye; RTA, retrolateral tibial apophysis. Measurements are given in mm, measurements in parenthesis indicate the range among specimens examined. Measurements of legs are given in the following format: [femur + patella + tibia + metatarsus + tarsus = total].
PloS one, 2018
In the past few decades, a diverse array of research has emphasized the precocity of technically ... more In the past few decades, a diverse array of research has emphasized the precocity of technically advanced and symbolic practices occurring during the southern African Middle Stone Age. However, uncertainties regarding the regional chrono-cultural framework constrain models and identification of the cultural and ecological mechanisms triggering the development of such early innovative behaviours. Here, we present new results and a refined chronology for the Pietersburg, a techno-complex initially defined in the late 1920's, which has disappeared from the literature since the 1980's. We base our revision of this techno-complex on ongoing excavations at Bushman Rock Shelter (BRS) in Limpopo Province, South Africa, where two Pietersburg phases (an upper phase called '21' and a lower phase called '28') are recognized. Our analysis focuses on the '28' phase, characterized by a knapping strategy based on Levallois and semi-prismatic laminar reduction systems...
PloS one, 2017
Projectile technology is considered to appear early in the southern African Middle Stone Age (MSA... more Projectile technology is considered to appear early in the southern African Middle Stone Age (MSA) and the rich and high resolution MSA sequence of Sibudu Cave in KwaZulu-Natal has provided many new insights about the use and hafting of various projectile forms. We present the results of a functional and technological analysis on a series of unpublished serrated bifacial points recently recovered from the basal deposits of Sibudu Cave. These serrated tools, which only find equivalents in the neighbouring site of Umhlatuzana, precede the Still Bay techno-complex and are older than 77 ka BP. Independent residue and use-wear analyses were performed in a phased procedure involving two separate analysts, which allowed the engagement between two separate lines of functional evidence. Thanks to the excellent preservation at Sibudu Cave, a wide range of animal, plant and mineral residues were observed in direct relation with diagnostic wear patterns. The combination of technological, wear a...
Prior to the 1990s, archaeologist often viewed the Middle Stone Age (MSA) as a period less import... more Prior to the 1990s, archaeologist often viewed the Middle Stone Age (MSA) as a period less important for research than the Earlier Stone Age in which early Homo evolved and the Later Stone Age in which scholars envisioned a high degree of archaeological continuity with recent hunters and gatherers. With the realization that modern humans evolved in Africa during the MSA around 200 ka BP, this period became a central topic of international research. Subsequently, new excavations and research projects made southern Africa the leading region for research on the MSA. Based on the results of an international workshop held in Tübingen in September 2014, we summarize the state of this research and demonstrate that current models advocating a clear cultural sequence across the entire subcontinent with well-defined and largely homogeneous cultural-chronological units are too simplistic. Here we stress that the archaeological record of the MSA is more complex and regionally variable than has ...
The Swabian Jura has long played a crucial role in key debates about the European Paleolithic. On... more The Swabian Jura has long played a crucial role in key debates about the European Paleolithic. One of the bestknown sites, Geißenklösterle Cave in the Ach Valley, has yielded a stratigraphic sequence including both Middle and Upper Paleolithic find horizons separated by a largely geogenic horizon. Here we present combined techno-economic and attribute analyses of the lithic artifacts from Middle Paleolithic horizons AH IV-VIII dating between ~90-45 ka BP. The lithic analyses demonstrate that Neanderthals mainly used the Levallois concept to knap locally available Jurassic cherts and produce small blanks and tools. Other raw materials occur as isolated artifacts. Apart from various modalities of Levallois technology, knappers employed Kostenki, bipolar and platform methods. Scrapers and splintered pieces are the most frequent tools, whereas notches, denticulates and bifacial implements including bifacially backed knives (Keilmesser) and leaf points (Blattspitzen) are absent. Low densities of archaeological finds and the export of selected blanks and tools indicate repeated shortterm occupations of the site in a settlement system characterized by high mobility. Although minor diachronic variation occurs, assemblages IV-VIII show a distinct signature that can be attributed to the same general technological and techno-economic system. Regional comparisons suggest that the Middle Paleolithic assemblages from Geißenklösterle correspond to the Swabian Mousterian, which is defined by the use of local raw materials, frequent Levallois reduction sequences, multiple scraper forms, and an almost complete absence of bifacial technology including Keilmesser and Blattspitzen. The upper Middle Paleolithic assemblages dating to ~50-45 ka BP provide new insights into the behavior and demography of late Neanderthals prior to the arrival of anatomically modern humans. Overall, the archaeology of Geißenklösterle illustrates a sharp break in lithic technology, organic artifacts, subsistence strategies, site use and population dynamics between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens in southwestern Germany.
ArchA 105, 2021, 11-50
In this paper, we present evidence for the prehistoric use of lithic
raw materials from the opali... more In this paper, we present evidence for the prehistoric use of lithic
raw materials from the opalite/limnosilicite source Csaterberge in the
province Burgenland, Austria. These materials were used for stone
tool production from the Middle- and Upper Palaeolithic through -
out the Neolithic and up to the Chalcolithic. Lithic artefacts made of
materials from this locality were previously documented, however
both the chronological and chorological extent of their use was dra-
matically underestimated. Diagnostic tool types (mainly sidescrap -
ers, bifacial tools) and the Levallois concept from the Csaterberge
hills point to exploitation of the opalite/limnosilicite already in the
Late Middle Palaeolithic. Moreover, this is the first record of a Mid-
dle Palaeolithic occupation in the Austrian province of Burgenland,
and at the same time the first secure evidence for the presence of the
Palaeolithic in this region in general.
Archaeologia Austriaca, 2021
The Middle Palaeolithic (MP) in Austria is overshadowed by the renowned Upper Palaeolithic sites ... more The Middle Palaeolithic (MP) in Austria is overshadowed by the renowned Upper Palaeolithic sites due to the lack of diagnostic assemblages from secured stratigraphic contexts. So far, not a single occupation in the time of Neanderthals has been reported from the province Burgenland. However, during surveys of the raw material source Csaterberg, which documents Neolithic exploitation, lithic artefacts were found which indicated a MP presence. We carried out a techno-typological study based on an attribute analysis approach to determine whether a MP occupation can be assumed. Additionally, the aim was to highlight the technological characteristics and to make statements about mobility strategies. Finally, the results should lead to an incorporation into the chrono-cultural MP framework.
Techno-typological and techno-economic criteria allowed us to identify a MP occupation of Csaterberg, which is the first evidence from Burgenland. The MP is characterised by the manufacture of bifacial tools, the dominance of scrapers, and the predominant blank production using the Levallois concept. Despite the small number of artefacts, we were able to demonstrate similarities with other Austrian MP sites. The Central European comparison suggests an assignment to the phase of Late Neanderthals. The site of Csaterberg thus contributes to a better understanding of the MP and strengthens MP research in Austria.
Over the past decade, the increasing wealth of new archaeological data on the Middle Stone Age (M... more Over the past decade, the increasing wealth of new archaeological data on the Middle Stone Age (MSA) in Senegal and Mali has broadened our understanding of West Africa’s contributions to cultural developments. Within the West African sequence, the phase of Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS 3, ca. 59-24 ka) yielded so far the best known and extensive archaeological information. The site of Toumboura III encompasses an occupation dated by optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) to between 40 ± 3 ka and 30 ± 3 ka. It provides the largest, welldated, and stratified lithic assemblage in West Africa for the MSA and sheds light on an unprecedented cultural expression for this period, adding to the notable diversity of the late MSA in this region. We conducted a technological analysis of the lithic components following the chaîne opératoire approach. The lithic assemblage features a prevalence of bifacial technology and the exploitation of flakes as blanks for tool production. The craftspeople manufactured distinct types of bifacial tools, including small bifacial points shaped by pressure technique. The new data from Toumboura III demonstrate behavioral patterns that are entirely new in the region. By revealing behavioral innovations and technological particularities, these results on the techno-cultural dynamics during the MIS 3 phase of the MSA enhance our understanding of the complex Pleistocene population history in this part of Africa.
Uploads
Papers by Viola C. Schmid
raw materials from the opalite/limnosilicite source Csaterberge in the
province Burgenland, Austria. These materials were used for stone
tool production from the Middle- and Upper Palaeolithic through -
out the Neolithic and up to the Chalcolithic. Lithic artefacts made of
materials from this locality were previously documented, however
both the chronological and chorological extent of their use was dra-
matically underestimated. Diagnostic tool types (mainly sidescrap -
ers, bifacial tools) and the Levallois concept from the Csaterberge
hills point to exploitation of the opalite/limnosilicite already in the
Late Middle Palaeolithic. Moreover, this is the first record of a Mid-
dle Palaeolithic occupation in the Austrian province of Burgenland,
and at the same time the first secure evidence for the presence of the
Palaeolithic in this region in general.
Techno-typological and techno-economic criteria allowed us to identify a MP occupation of Csaterberg, which is the first evidence from Burgenland. The MP is characterised by the manufacture of bifacial tools, the dominance of scrapers, and the predominant blank production using the Levallois concept. Despite the small number of artefacts, we were able to demonstrate similarities with other Austrian MP sites. The Central European comparison suggests an assignment to the phase of Late Neanderthals. The site of Csaterberg thus contributes to a better understanding of the MP and strengthens MP research in Austria.
raw materials from the opalite/limnosilicite source Csaterberge in the
province Burgenland, Austria. These materials were used for stone
tool production from the Middle- and Upper Palaeolithic through -
out the Neolithic and up to the Chalcolithic. Lithic artefacts made of
materials from this locality were previously documented, however
both the chronological and chorological extent of their use was dra-
matically underestimated. Diagnostic tool types (mainly sidescrap -
ers, bifacial tools) and the Levallois concept from the Csaterberge
hills point to exploitation of the opalite/limnosilicite already in the
Late Middle Palaeolithic. Moreover, this is the first record of a Mid-
dle Palaeolithic occupation in the Austrian province of Burgenland,
and at the same time the first secure evidence for the presence of the
Palaeolithic in this region in general.
Techno-typological and techno-economic criteria allowed us to identify a MP occupation of Csaterberg, which is the first evidence from Burgenland. The MP is characterised by the manufacture of bifacial tools, the dominance of scrapers, and the predominant blank production using the Levallois concept. Despite the small number of artefacts, we were able to demonstrate similarities with other Austrian MP sites. The Central European comparison suggests an assignment to the phase of Late Neanderthals. The site of Csaterberg thus contributes to a better understanding of the MP and strengthens MP research in Austria.