Biblical Studies

, xiv + 272 pp., hb £90 This is 'a slight reworking' of Seulgi Byun's Cambridge University doctoral dissertation of 2013, supervised by Prof. Robert P. Gordon. In this study, Byun investigates the linguistic background of the translator of LXX Isaiah, by examining cases in which Post-Biblical Hebrew (PBH, the post-exilic dialect attested primarily in the Judean Desert texts) and Aramaic may have influenced the translator's understanding of Biblical Hebrew (BH) words. In Section 1, Byun discusses semantic change in Hebrew and develops Jan Joosten's criteria for identifying linguistic interference from PBH and Aramaic in the LXX: the form of the PBH/Aramaic element corresponds exactly to that in the MT, the meaning of the PBH/Aramaic element corresponds exactly to the Greek, and this meaning is distinct from the MT's meaning. Refining these criteria, Byun allows for overlapping meanings during the process of semantic change and he also allows more flexibility with the first criterion, because of the distinct grammars and orthographies of the languages. In Section 2, Byun deals with the influence of PBH on the LXX Isaiah translator, first outlining types of semantic change with clear biblical examples, including abstraction, concretization, obsolescence, shifting in predominance of meanings in polysemous words, and neologisms. In Chapter 1, Byun examines ‫צ‬ ‫ד‬ ‫ק‬ ‫ה‬ 'justice, righteousness' = ἐλεημοσύνη 'alms, charity' (Isa. 27.1; 28.17; 59.16). He demonstrates that ‫צ‬ ‫ד‬ ‫ק‬ ‫ה‬ underwent semantic narrowing from 'right behavior' to concrete examples of righteous behavior, for example 'almsgiving, charity'. He explains that the translator knew the BH meaning of ‫צ‬ ‫ד‬ ‫ק‬ ‫ה‬ and therefore generally rendered it by δικαιοσύνη, but that the later meaning 'merciful action' was also readily available to him and so he used ἐλεημοσύνη in certain contexts. In Chapter 2, Byun discusses ‫כ‬ ‫ש‬ ‫ל‬ 'stumble, stagger, totter' = ἀδυνατέω 'weaken' (Isa. 8.15). The meaning 'be weak' occurs rarely in BH, only where other key words occur in the same context. Byun states that 'in PBH the minority BH meaning "be weak" was gaining strength to the disadvantage of the previously predominant sense of "stumble"' (p. 87). In Chapter 3, Byun argues that ‫ב‬ ‫ר‬ ‫ר‬ 'polished, sharpened, burnished' = ἐκλεκτός 'choice' (Isa. 49.2) may be explained by the development in LBH of the meaning 'choose', which emerged alongside and subsequently overtook the most common meaning 'purify' and the less common 'sharpen'. Section 3 deals with Aramaic influence on the translator of LXX Isaiah. Byun explains that Aramaic (grammatical, lexical, semantic) influence on the LXX happened in two ways: the inner development of the Hebrew Reviews 451

Ecclesiastes has received a number of postmodern-styled readings in recent decades. One such piece by Mark Sneed distinguishes itself by applying deconstructive methods to show Qohelet's internal contradictions. Although Sneed's argument is helpful and illuminating, certain aspects of Derrida's articulation of 'deconstruction' are not well represented. In this article, an alternative 'deconstruction' of Qohelet is offered which attempts to witness to tensions within the text instead of applying predetermined concepts from outside.

This paper concerns the use of intentional ambiguity in poetic depictions of divine conflict in the Baal Epic and the Hebrew Bible. The focus of this paper differs from, for instance, the use of metaphor or euphemism in ancient Semitic poetry, or deliberately confusing literary expression, 1 giving attention instead to individual lines of poetry in these two bodies of literature in which more than one shade of meaning within the semantic range of a root is put in play or two distinct roots are signaled by what one finds in the consonantal text, either of which would make sense in context. 2 Although not at all exhaustive, this article seeks to show that, far from being incidental to the inner working of the poetry of these ancient texts, the ambiguous and playful use of different meanings attaching to any one root is an essential part of the way in which they communicate the cosmic significance of divine action. Such ambiguity, as will be seen, deepens the meaning of the poetry, rather than lessening or clouding it. 3 Out of many possible examples from the Hebrew Bible, two passages displaying a significant level of intentional ambiguity will be discussed: Habakkuk 3.3-15 and Isaiah 30.27-33. Both of these descriptions of Yahweh's warfare in the storm display, of course, a profound debt to a common stock of tradition in the ancient Near East about the divine defeat of chaos. With this debt in mind, we may turn to the closest extra-biblical example of the same theme—the Baal Epic—to explore whether intentional ambiguity also finds a place in ANE descriptions of divine warfare. A brief discussion on methodology in discerning the intentional use of ambiguity in Ugaritic poetry will introduce the analysis of a few passages from the Baal Epic, followed by a discussion of the texts themselves. After a potential objection to this approach is addressed, the article will conclude with a suggestion about the implications of the results of this inquiry for the study of Ugaritic.

This article examines a structural phenomenon in Isaiah 1–39 in which different sections of a prophecy are deliberately placed out of order either logically or chronologically. After an initial example from chs. 24–27, chs. 11, 30 and 2 are discussed. In each of these three cases, it is argued that later passages in the respective chapters (11.11-16, 30.27-33 and 2.6-22) describe necessary preconditions for the earlier passages (11.1-9, 30.18-26 and 2.1-5) to come into being—more speci¿cally, YHWH's defeat of the nations must occur before creation is renewed, Israel dwells secure on Zion, and the nations come to worship there. The implications of this analysis for theories of the redaction of these three chapters are then considered, and a tentative conclusion reached that assignation of the various passages of these chapters to different centuries is less likely than hypothesizing a simpler compositional history, in which the different passages making up these chapters were written with each other in mind from the beginning. This article examines an aspect of the structure of the book of Isaiah in which different sections of a prophecy are placed in an unexpected order, such that elements which a reader attentive to the various dimensions of prophetic thought in the Hebrew Bible would expect to be prior to others,

The social dynamics of shame form a minor but important theme in the book of Ezekiel, one which has received helpful scholarly attention as part of the proliferation of social-scientific readings of biblical texts. One aspect of this theme has, however, been given less discussion: in six places in the book, Ezekiel claims that Israel will be ashamed when YHWH restores them (16.59-63; 20.43-44; 36.31-32; 39.26; 43.10-11; 44.9-14). 1 This is a surprising claim, since Israel's restoration would have removed all of the normal causes of shame within their cultural context. This article attempts to fill the void in current research on shame in Ezekiel by arguing that shame in restoration cannot be understood according to the normal patterns of shame/honor relations within an ancient Semitic context, but is better interpreted theologically in relation to Israel's recognition of YHWH in the book of Ezekiel. 2 In order adequately to explore this theme, the normal patterns of shame and honor will need to be sketched briefly, especially as such patterns surface within the book of Ezekiel itself. Two aspects of shame in restoration in Ezekiel will be discussed which distinguish it from the normal pattern of ancient Israelite shame/honor relationships. 3 As part of this discussion, the few attempts which have been made to interpret shame in restoration will be evaluated. Our own counter-proposal will then be presented, according to which shame in restoration should be understood in relation to the knowledge of YHWH.

Of the many puzzles that confront the reader of the book of Job, one of the most intriguing centers on the figure of Leviathan at the close of YHWH's speeches. O ut of all the things YHWH m ight say to his w ounded but faithful servant, w hy spend so much time describing the fearsome qualities of this creature? And w hat is Job supposed to conclude after hearing this speech? Interpretation of the figure of Leviathan at the end of the book of Job splits neatly into tw o groups,1 The majority opinion understands Leviathan to be a natural creature, probably a crocodile.2 On the other hand, a few commentators take Leviathan to be a prim eval, supernatural evil, on a par w ith the divine or semidivine m onsters described in ANE epic.31 w ould like to argue that the latter interpretation of Leviathan is correct on tw o grounds. First, this interpretation of Leviathan is consistent with other ANE and OT depictions of Leviathan. Second, this interpretation shows how YHWH directly and clearly answers Job's com plaint concerning YHWH's unjust treatm ent of him. Briefly, I understand YHWH, in referencing this fearsome monster, to be speaking w ithin Job's cultural context in order to communicate to him that there is a terrible evil loose in the world that YHWH prom ises to defeat—b u t that he has not defeated yet.4 Stated *Eric Ortlund is Associate Professor of Old Testament at Briercrest College and Seminary. 1For a summary of this issue with discussion of the specific view s of different commentators, see Kinnier Wilson, "Return to the Problems of Behemoth and Leviathan," VT 25 (1975): 1-14. 2Argued most eloquently by John Gammie in "Behemoth and Leviathan: On the Didactic and Theological Significance of Job 40:25-26," in Israelite Wisdom (ed. John Gammie et al.; Missoula: Scholars Press, 1978), 217— 31. Other commentators reading the passage this way w ill be discussed further below. 3For instance, André Caquot, "Le Léviathan de Job 40:25-41:26," RB 99 (1992): 40-69. Caquot focuses more on close exegesis o f the poem and less on the contribution of the poem to the meaning of the book; in this article, I w ill focus on the latter issue. 4t h e description of this monster often contains mythic elements. While the terms mythic and myth can sometimes refer to something patently false, such w ould not have been the case in ANE societies (see Bertil Albrecktson, History and the Gods: An Essay on the Idea of Historical Events as Divine Manifestations in the Ancient Near East and in Israel [ConBOT 1; Gleerup: Lund, 1967]). Rather it appears that ancient Semites used "mythic" imagery and themes to express sym bolically those archetypal relations between the divine and hum an/natural realms. Mythic texts describe how the present

Yahweh's stated preference for Job's speech toward him in opposition to the friends in Job 42:7 is difficult to understand in light of the many criticisms Job levels against God in the course of the debate and the many seemingly pious and biblically supportable claims which the friends made. A variety of proposed interpretations of this verse are considered and rejected. It is argued instead that even when Job curses creation in ch. 3, he shows how much he values the friendship with God which he thinks he has now (inexplicably) lost; even when he rails against what seems to be a guilty verdict in chs. 9-10, Job shows how profoundly he understands that human claims of righteousness must be substantiated by God to have any worth. In these ways and others, Job spoke rightly about God even when he criticized.

This article explores the way in which the Song of Songs instructs its readers in wisdom with regard to romance and marriage. Although neither a straightforward narrative or a simple set of instructions, the poetry of the Song does portray God's ideal for human love. Special attention is given to the importance of waiting (2:7, 3:5, 8:4), the climactic place of marriage and the subordinate (though still good) role of physical sexuality, the role of the woman, and the non-ultimacy of marriage. e spiritual significance of human romance as a "flame of the Lord" (8:6) is finally discussed with special reference to the sweeping changes in Western sexuality morality in recent decades, and the way in which the Bible's narrative about love and sexuality is simultaneously more realistic and more beautiful than recent humanly-constructed alternatives. Attention is given throughout to the particular way in which the Song communicates, by adorning and beautifying its subject through poetry, rather than through direct commands.

For all the books and articles written on Job, probably not very many have the word "joy" in their title. 1 Job surely qualifies as the Old Testament's most harrowing and disturbing book in its description of the unimaginable suffering of one of God's favorite saints, all for reasons Job himself cannot understand. Even the first chapter of the book is sobering, to say the least, but the whole of Job's ordeal has a peculiar quality in which the nightmare deepens as we read: as if the death of his children were not enough, Job is then brought to the edge of the grave by illness (2:78); whatever solace he might find with his wife is lost when she recommends compromising integrity with God by cursing him and thus ending Job's agony (2:9); his friends fail in their intent to comfort (2:11) by accusing him of deserving everything he has suffered (e.g., 4:2-8; 8:3-4, 11:6). (Imagine how it felt for someone as devoted to God as Job was to hear from former friends that God was incredibly angry with himand right to be so.) But more than all these torments, Job's deepest pain (cf. 2:13) is his lost friendship with God (29:4). Job never once asks for his picture-perfect life back; he only and obsessively talks about somehow being able to meet with God again and resolve whatever it was that went wrong between them (e.g., 13:13-23; 23:1-7). Job can bless God's name and reconcile himself to the death of his children (1:21). What he cannot be reconciled to is the thought that God is angry with him-and Job simply cannot fathom why (10:2). 2 Even after reading of the resolution of Job's trauma in a new vision of God (42:5-6) and Job's restoration to blessing under God's smile (42:10-17), the memory remains of Job sitting on the ash heap, weeping. Even with a happy ending, joy seems far away from the book. A sense of unease lingers. This unease has dominated some important scholarship on the book of Job. ERIC ORTLUND is Lecturer in Old Testament and Biblical Hebrew at Oak Hill College in London, UK. He holds a PhD from the University of Edinburgh. 1 This article began its life as a paper for the Wisdom and Biblical Theology program at the 2020 ETS meeting (held online). I am very thankful for the helpful comments and interaction from the program chair Robert Yarbrough and fellow presenters Daniel Estes and Lindsay Wilson. 2 It is crucial to remember that the losses of chapters 1-2 would have been interpreted by Job and his friends not just as misfortune but also as angry punishment from God for sin (i.e., just as Job's piety in 1:1 issues in blessing under God's hand in vv. 2-4, so the loss of these blessings would have implied to everyone that Job had lost his piety as well). For someone who loved God as much as Job did and was as scrupulous in obedience as Job was, the inexplicable wrath and anger of God would have been awful.

Somewhat in distinction from other OT books, Job generates not just diverse but flatly contradictory interpretations which can be summarized as “pro-theodicy” and “anti-theodicy:” the same text is read either to demonstrate God’s justice and goodness in the face of terrible suffering or to demonstrate God’s immorality and malice. Four important passages are examined according to both of these perspectives (the interaction of the satan and YHWH in 1:6-12, 2:1-7; YHWH’s being “enticed to destroy Job for no reason” in 2:3; the comparison between Leviathan and YHWH in 41:10-12, and Job’s last response in 42:6). It is argued that although these passages contain difficulties which make it possible to carry an anti-theodicy reading very far, such a reading is ultimately untenable. Enough data is present in the text to support a reading of Job as a successful theodicy. However, the text has been written with calculated difficulties which have the tendency to force the reader to draw on the assumptions they bring to the text as well as exegetical decisions made elsewhere in the book of Job and the OT as a whole. This has the effect of reinforcing the reader’s assumptions and producing contradictory readings.

Group selection" is often cited as an explanation for the survival of altruism. The idea of group selection is a controversial one -much effort has been expended on its justification (and refutation). Relatively little effort has gone into formally testing whether or not it can actually provide a reasonable explanation for altruistic behaviour. This paper concentrates solely on whether or not a group structure enables the survival of altruism in an evolving population. If altruism is to flourish either groups need to be isolated from each other for multiple generations, or groups themselves need to constructed in a positively assortative manner. In the former case the size of the group, the relative benefit to cost of altruism and the number of generations in isolation play a crucial role in determining the survival chances of altruism. In the latter case, when groups are short-lived phenomena, a precise condition is given on the assortative mechanism for the survival of altruism in the long run. The probability distribution of the dispersion-rematching process and the group size are of critical importance in this case.