The fortifications of Bukhara in Antique and Early Medieval Times (based on the materials of exca... more The fortifications of Bukhara in Antique and Early Medieval Times (based on the materials of excavations of the Uzbek-American Expedition in 2021–2024)
This paper reflects the main results of the works of the Uzbek-American Archaeological Expedition in Bukhara in 2020–2024. As a result of the research, the south-western corner of the ancient fortress, reinforced by a rectangular corner tower, was discovered. This fortress was erected earlier than the second half of the 2nd century BC. It is very likely that it appeared here during the Seleucid rule in Western Sogdiana (c. 305–230 BC). Not earlier than the 2nd — 3rd centuries AD to the west of the open wall with the corner tower the separate fortified buildings appeared, which were excavated in varying degrees. In the first half of the 5th century AD the walls of the early (first) Shahristan of Bukhara proper were erected. This wall was opened by excavations to a length of 24 m and, in all probability, existed until the second half — the end of the 7th century. Finally, the remains of another defensive wall were recorded by excavations 64 m west of the first western wall of the shahristan, which indicates the growth of the city territory. It is not excluded that this growth is connected with the construction program of Bukhar Khudat Bidun/ Nidun at the Ark until 680.
Keywords: Bukhara, fortifications, fortress wall, city wall, Antiquity, Early Middle Ages
The transition between the Final Bronze and Early Iron Age remains one of the least understood pe... more The transition between the Final Bronze and Early Iron Age remains one of the least understood periods in the archaeology of southern Central Asia. In this paper, we introduce the newly discovered site of Kimirek-kum-1 (floruit ca. 1250-1050 CAL B.C.) in the old delta of the Zerafshan River in present-day Uzbekistan. Combined pedestrian survey, geomagnetic prospection, hand augering, and stratigraphic excavation, conducted between 2021 and 2023, demonstrate the site's unique potential to improve our understanding of the Final Bronze/Early Iron Age transition and the interface between the Central Eurasian steppes to the north and the Indo-Iranian world to the south. Notably, our investigations yielded nearly 400 objects in copper alloys, lead, gold, and semiprecious stone. These findings strongly suggest that Kimirek-kum-1 represents a substantial new Final Bronze/Early Iron Age center with extensive external links. It raises critical questions about the continuity of long-distance exchanges and elite networks after the end of the Oxus civilization.
Glass manufacturing processes and recipes changed fundamentally after the 8th century CE. The ear... more Glass manufacturing processes and recipes changed fundamentally after the 8th century CE. The earlier centralised production system diversified, primary production sites multiplied, and the scale of individual productions contracted. Mineral soda was no longer used and instead replaced by plant ash as the main fluxing agent, affecting the chemical composition and properties of the glass. In this work, LA-ICP-MS and Raman spectroscopy were used to investigate the compositional and structural characteristics of 68 glass fragments recovered during recent excavations at Bukhara in Uzbekistan, dating to the 9th to early 11th centuries CE. This is the most extensive systematically collected and studied glass assemblage from Central Asia to date. The glass can be attributed to different origins, confirming on the one hand the diversification of glass production during the early Islamic period and, on the other hand, regional variations in the chemical compositions and network structure of soda-rich plant ash glasses. As clear archaeological evidence for early Islamic glass production sites in Central Asia is rare, regional production groups are distinguished primarily on relative concentrations of Mg, K, P, Cl, Li and Cs in relation to the plant ash component, while variabilities in Al, Ti, Cr, Y, Zr, Th and REEs and their ratios indicate different silica sources. Raman spectra suggest variations in network connectivity and Q n speciation that confirm compositional groupings and suggest structural differences between regional productions of plant ash glass. The results demonstrate a clear dominance of local or regional glass groups, while revealing the importation of Mesopotamian glass, notably a high-end colourless glass type from the region around Samarra in Iraq. The new analytical data allow further separation and characterisation of novel early Islamic plant-ash glass types and their production areas.
The Silk Road is a modern name for a globalization phenomenon that marked an extensive network of... more The Silk Road is a modern name for a globalization phenomenon that marked an extensive network of communication and exchange in the ancient world; by the turn of the second millennium AD, commercial trade linked Asia and supported the development of a string of large urban centers across Central Asia. One of the main arteries of the medieval trade routes followed the middle and lower Zarafshan River and was connected by mercantile cities, such as Samarkand and Bukhara. Bukhara developed into a flourishing urban center between the fourth and sixth centuries AD, served as the capital of the Samanid court between AD 893 and 999, and remained prosperous into the Qarakhanid period (AD 999-1220), until the Mongol invasion in AD 1220. We present the first archaeobotanical study from this ancient center of education, craft production, artistic development, and commerce. Radiocarbon dates and an archaeological chronology that has been developed for the site show that our samples cover a range between the third and eleventh centuries AD. These samples from Bukhara represent the richest systematically collected archaeobotanical assemblage thus far recovered in Central Asia. The assemblage includes spices and both annual and perennial crops, which allowed Sogdians and Samanids to feed large cities in river oases surrounded by desert and arid steppe and supported a far-reaching commercial market in the first millennium AD.
Rice is one of the most culturally valued and widely grown crops in the world today, and extensiv... more Rice is one of the most culturally valued and widely grown crops in the world today, and extensive research over the past decade has clarified much of the narrative of its domestication and early spread across East and South Asia. However, the timing and routes of its dispersal into West Asia and Europe, through which rice eventually became an important ingredient in global cuisines, has remained less clear. In this article, we discuss the piecemeal, but growing, archaeobotanical data for rice in West Asia. We also integrate written sources, linguistic data, and ethnohistoric analogies, in order to better understand the adoption of rice outside its regions of origin. The human-mediated westward spread of rice proceeded gradually, while its social standing and culinary uses repeatedly changing over time and place. Rice was present in West Asia and Europe by the tail end of the first millennium BC, but did not become a significant crop in West Asia until the past few centuries. Complementary historical, linguistic, and archaeobotanical data illustrate two separate and roughly contemporaneous routes of westward dispersal, one along the South Asian coast and the other through Silk Road trade. By better understanding the adoption of this water-demanding crop in the arid regions of West Asia, we explore an important chapter in human adaptation and agricultural decision making.
The pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) is commercially cultivated in semi-arid regions around the globe... more The pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) is commercially cultivated in semi-arid regions around the globe. Archaeobotanical, genetic, and linguistic data suggest that the pistachio was brought under cultivation somewhere within its wild range, spanning southern Central Asia, northern Iran, and northern Afghanistan. Historically, pistachio cultivation has primarily relied on grafting, suggesting that, as with many Eurasian tree crops, domestication resulted from genetically locking hybrids or favored individuals in place. Plant domestication and dispersal research has largely focused on weedy, highly adaptable, self-compatible annuals; in this discussion, we present a case study that involves a dioecious long-lived perennial-a domestication process that would have required a completely different traditional ecological knowledge system than that utilized for grain cultivation. We argue that the pistachio was brought under cultivation in southern Central Asia, spreading westward by at least 2000 years ago (maybe a few centuries earlier to the mountains of modern Syria) and moved eastward only at the end of the first millennium AD. The seeds remain rare in archaeological sites outside its native range, even into the mid-second millennium AD, and may not have been widely cultivated until the past few hundred years.
The urban center of Paykend was an exchange node just off the main corridor of the Silk Road in t... more The urban center of Paykend was an exchange node just off the main corridor of the Silk Road in the Bukhara Oasis on the edge of the hyperarid Kyzyl-Kum Desert. The city was occupied from the end of 4 century B.C.E. to the mid-12 century C.E.; our study focuses on the Qarakhanid period (C.E. 999-1211), the last imperial phase of urban occupation at Paykend before its abandonment. In this study, we present the results of an analysis of archaeobotanical remains recovered from a multifunction rabat, which appears to have comprised a domicile, military structure, center of commerce, and/or a caravanserai, a roadside inn for travelers. We shed light on how people adapted a productive economy to the local ecological constraints. By adding these data to the limited Qarakhanid archaeobotany from across Central Asia, we provide the first glimpses into cultivation, commerce, and consumption at a Silk Road trading town along the King's Road, the central artery of ancient Eurasia.
Until relatively recently, the centuries between Xiongnu and Türk domination in the Mongolian ste... more Until relatively recently, the centuries between Xiongnu and Türk domination in the Mongolian steppelands (both north and south of the Gobi Desert) appeared as an archaeological "dark age." In recent years however, archaeological discoveries have started to throw new light on this period, shattering long-held assumptions and, at the same time, generating new questions. Among the most important of these recent discoveries are five 5 th / early 6th century elite combs found at Yihe-nur in southeastern Inner Mongolia. Previous studies dealing with these sumptuously furnished tombs have focused on detailing 伊和淖尔 M6 出土项饰、腰带及其与欧亚大陆之间的联系 • 345 • connections with the contemporary Northern Wei court culture. However, a closer look at a peculiar type of pectoral found in M6 and a set of two exquisite parade belts found in M3 and M6, suggests that the owners of these tombs also adhered to fashions and shared expressions of status and power that were much more common in the steppes and in the "Western Regions" than in the Chinese heartland, pointing to elite networks spanning far across Central Eurasia. Particularly the two belts with carnelian inlays indicate a particular connection between the male tomb occupant in M6 and the possibly female tomb occupant of M3, although the exact character of that connection eludes us. At the same time, both the belts and the pectorals from M6 and M3 suggest links with the region of Eastern Transbaikalia.
Note: The volume was published in black-and-white, which rendered the maps all but unreadable. Th... more Note: The volume was published in black-and-white, which rendered the maps all but unreadable. This PDF contains the original color figures of the maps.
On the Question of Sasanian Presence in Sogdiana. Recent Results of Excavations at Paykand, 2016
The article covers the results of new excavations at the citadel of Paikend, an ancient city in t... more The article covers the results of new excavations at the citadel of Paikend, an ancient city in the south of Bukhara oasis (modern Uzbekistan). The data obtained demonstrated that an extensive construction work was performed in the 2nd half of the 3rd – 4th cc. A.D. New protective walls, garrison’s barracks were built and the Fire temple was rebuilt. The details of the temple’s layout find parallels in Iranian cult architecture. The mural paintings were found as well. It is possible that they were influenced by Sasanian art. Coins, pottery, small products had also undergone changes and are similar to the Kushano-Sasanian material assemblage of Bactria-Tokharistan. The hypothesis proposed that the phenomenon related with the expansion of Sasanian Iran into the Bukhara oasis.
Until relatively recently, the centuries between Xiongnu and Türk domination in the Mongolian st... more Until relatively recently, the centuries between Xiongnu and Türk domination in the Mongolian steppelands (both north and south of the Gobi Desert) appeared as an archaeological »dark age«. At the same time, the steppe empire of the Rouran has, compared to the polities of the Xiongnu and the Türks, received relatively little attention by modern historians. In recent years however, archaeological discoveries have started to throw new light on this period, shattering long-held assumptions and, at the same time, generating new questions. Among the most important of these recent discoveries are five 5th century elite tombs found at Yihe-nur in southeastern Inner Mongolia. Previous studies dealing with these sumpotously furnished tombs have been focused on detailing connections with the contemporary Northern Wei court culture, labeling the tomb owners either as »Xianbei« or as »Gaoche«. However, a closer look at a set of two exquisite parade belts and a peculiar type of pectoral found at Yihe-nur, suggests that the tomb owners of Yihe-nur also adhered to fashions that were much more common in the steppes and in the »Western Regions« than in the Chinese heartland, pointing to elite networks spanning far across Central Eurasia. Finally, this paper will inquire into the question how a better understanding of the Rouran polity and its elites can shed additional light on these elite networks in the northern Chinese frontier and beyond during the 5th and early 6th century.
The present article argues that the earliest attestation of the city of Paykand in Bukhārān Soghd... more The present article argues that the earliest attestation of the city of Paykand in Bukhārān Soghd is to be found in the memoirs of the ‘Western regions’ of the Beishi and the extant Weishu (both going back to the now lost original ‘Xiyu zhuan’ of the Weishu). This identification has so far been overlooked due to a scribal error. This earliest mentioning of Paykand goes in all likelihood back to information gathered by the Northern Wei embassy of the years 436-437, which visited the various countries of the ‘Western regions’ up to Chāch. Although the passage in question is relatively short, it nonetheless provides us with important details regarding the urbanization process in Paykand, the mercantile atmosphere already at this early stage of the development of the city, and the earliest attestation of rice in Sogdiana. It is quite possible that these details were provided to the Chinese emissaries by an informant from Bukhārān Sogd.
The following short remarks on the cultural geography of the various oasis regions and the steppe... more The following short remarks on the cultural geography of the various oasis regions and the steppe lands north of Bactria during the Hellenistic and post-Hellenistic period (3rd century BCE to 1st century CE) attempt to set the spatial stage for the present chapter. One needs to bear in mind that they are necessarily brief and somewhat schematic. Also, I should indicate here that I partially draw for this geographical overview from later, better attested periods (on this method see the next section 'Sources and methodological problems'). My main aim is to briefy fesh-out the character of the regions north of Bactria as an extensive and heterogeneous frontier closely connected with the vast Central Eurasian steppe lands. Bactria's closest northern neighbour, beyond the offshoots of the Hissar range to the northwest, was the historical region of Sogdiana (Lyonnet this volume), 1 subdivided into several oasis territories along the Zerafshan and Kashka-Darya rivers: Maracanda (Samarqand) along the middle course of the Zerafshan, Bukhara in the delta area of the river, Nakhshab (Qarshi) at the lower reaches and Kesh (Shahri-Sabz/Kitab) at the upper reaches of the Kashka-Darya. Enclosed by the Zerafshan in the north and the Kashka-Darya to the south lies an extensive desert-steppe (fttingly called ūrta chūl-'inner steppe'-in Late Medieval times). The northern and northeastern borders of Bactria were framed by a vast high-mountain zone. Beyond we fnd a series of oasis-steppe regions belonging to the catchment area of the upper and middle Syr-Darya (known to the Greeks as Iaxartes and, erroneously, identifed with the European Tanaïs, the Don river), called Fergana, Ilaq, and Chach during Medieval times. North of the Turkestan Range several small alluvial fans emptying into the Hunger steppe form a region known as Ustrushana during the Early Middle Ages. Further to the northwest, beyond the Kyzyl-kum desert (where one fnds important turquoise deposits) and downstream along the Oxus/Amu Darya, lay the region of Chorasmia, extending over most parts of the delta area of the Oxus/Amu Darya. This region provided an important gateway to the nomadic world of the Ustyurt plateau and the southern Urals, as well as-via the then still functioning Uzboi river-to the Caspian shores and beyond (the southern Caucasus and the northern Pontic regions). Nearby, a similar delta region is formed by the Syr-Darya further to the 78
Brief report on excavations of kurgans and kurgan ensembles at Lyavandak and Kyzyl-tepa in Bukhar... more Brief report on excavations of kurgans and kurgan ensembles at Lyavandak and Kyzyl-tepa in Bukharan Sogdiana, dating between the 3rd cent. BCE and the 2nd/3rd cent. CE.
A brief report on the results of works at Bashtepa and Tali-Surkh in Bukharan Soghd in 2018, incl... more A brief report on the results of works at Bashtepa and Tali-Surkh in Bukharan Soghd in 2018, including new finds of terracotta figurines, imitations of 'Megarian bowls', and loom weights.
The fortifications of Bukhara in Antique and Early Medieval Times (based on the materials of exca... more The fortifications of Bukhara in Antique and Early Medieval Times (based on the materials of excavations of the Uzbek-American Expedition in 2021–2024)
This paper reflects the main results of the works of the Uzbek-American Archaeological Expedition in Bukhara in 2020–2024. As a result of the research, the south-western corner of the ancient fortress, reinforced by a rectangular corner tower, was discovered. This fortress was erected earlier than the second half of the 2nd century BC. It is very likely that it appeared here during the Seleucid rule in Western Sogdiana (c. 305–230 BC). Not earlier than the 2nd — 3rd centuries AD to the west of the open wall with the corner tower the separate fortified buildings appeared, which were excavated in varying degrees. In the first half of the 5th century AD the walls of the early (first) Shahristan of Bukhara proper were erected. This wall was opened by excavations to a length of 24 m and, in all probability, existed until the second half — the end of the 7th century. Finally, the remains of another defensive wall were recorded by excavations 64 m west of the first western wall of the shahristan, which indicates the growth of the city territory. It is not excluded that this growth is connected with the construction program of Bukhar Khudat Bidun/ Nidun at the Ark until 680.
Keywords: Bukhara, fortifications, fortress wall, city wall, Antiquity, Early Middle Ages
The transition between the Final Bronze and Early Iron Age remains one of the least understood pe... more The transition between the Final Bronze and Early Iron Age remains one of the least understood periods in the archaeology of southern Central Asia. In this paper, we introduce the newly discovered site of Kimirek-kum-1 (floruit ca. 1250-1050 CAL B.C.) in the old delta of the Zerafshan River in present-day Uzbekistan. Combined pedestrian survey, geomagnetic prospection, hand augering, and stratigraphic excavation, conducted between 2021 and 2023, demonstrate the site's unique potential to improve our understanding of the Final Bronze/Early Iron Age transition and the interface between the Central Eurasian steppes to the north and the Indo-Iranian world to the south. Notably, our investigations yielded nearly 400 objects in copper alloys, lead, gold, and semiprecious stone. These findings strongly suggest that Kimirek-kum-1 represents a substantial new Final Bronze/Early Iron Age center with extensive external links. It raises critical questions about the continuity of long-distance exchanges and elite networks after the end of the Oxus civilization.
Glass manufacturing processes and recipes changed fundamentally after the 8th century CE. The ear... more Glass manufacturing processes and recipes changed fundamentally after the 8th century CE. The earlier centralised production system diversified, primary production sites multiplied, and the scale of individual productions contracted. Mineral soda was no longer used and instead replaced by plant ash as the main fluxing agent, affecting the chemical composition and properties of the glass. In this work, LA-ICP-MS and Raman spectroscopy were used to investigate the compositional and structural characteristics of 68 glass fragments recovered during recent excavations at Bukhara in Uzbekistan, dating to the 9th to early 11th centuries CE. This is the most extensive systematically collected and studied glass assemblage from Central Asia to date. The glass can be attributed to different origins, confirming on the one hand the diversification of glass production during the early Islamic period and, on the other hand, regional variations in the chemical compositions and network structure of soda-rich plant ash glasses. As clear archaeological evidence for early Islamic glass production sites in Central Asia is rare, regional production groups are distinguished primarily on relative concentrations of Mg, K, P, Cl, Li and Cs in relation to the plant ash component, while variabilities in Al, Ti, Cr, Y, Zr, Th and REEs and their ratios indicate different silica sources. Raman spectra suggest variations in network connectivity and Q n speciation that confirm compositional groupings and suggest structural differences between regional productions of plant ash glass. The results demonstrate a clear dominance of local or regional glass groups, while revealing the importation of Mesopotamian glass, notably a high-end colourless glass type from the region around Samarra in Iraq. The new analytical data allow further separation and characterisation of novel early Islamic plant-ash glass types and their production areas.
The Silk Road is a modern name for a globalization phenomenon that marked an extensive network of... more The Silk Road is a modern name for a globalization phenomenon that marked an extensive network of communication and exchange in the ancient world; by the turn of the second millennium AD, commercial trade linked Asia and supported the development of a string of large urban centers across Central Asia. One of the main arteries of the medieval trade routes followed the middle and lower Zarafshan River and was connected by mercantile cities, such as Samarkand and Bukhara. Bukhara developed into a flourishing urban center between the fourth and sixth centuries AD, served as the capital of the Samanid court between AD 893 and 999, and remained prosperous into the Qarakhanid period (AD 999-1220), until the Mongol invasion in AD 1220. We present the first archaeobotanical study from this ancient center of education, craft production, artistic development, and commerce. Radiocarbon dates and an archaeological chronology that has been developed for the site show that our samples cover a range between the third and eleventh centuries AD. These samples from Bukhara represent the richest systematically collected archaeobotanical assemblage thus far recovered in Central Asia. The assemblage includes spices and both annual and perennial crops, which allowed Sogdians and Samanids to feed large cities in river oases surrounded by desert and arid steppe and supported a far-reaching commercial market in the first millennium AD.
Rice is one of the most culturally valued and widely grown crops in the world today, and extensiv... more Rice is one of the most culturally valued and widely grown crops in the world today, and extensive research over the past decade has clarified much of the narrative of its domestication and early spread across East and South Asia. However, the timing and routes of its dispersal into West Asia and Europe, through which rice eventually became an important ingredient in global cuisines, has remained less clear. In this article, we discuss the piecemeal, but growing, archaeobotanical data for rice in West Asia. We also integrate written sources, linguistic data, and ethnohistoric analogies, in order to better understand the adoption of rice outside its regions of origin. The human-mediated westward spread of rice proceeded gradually, while its social standing and culinary uses repeatedly changing over time and place. Rice was present in West Asia and Europe by the tail end of the first millennium BC, but did not become a significant crop in West Asia until the past few centuries. Complementary historical, linguistic, and archaeobotanical data illustrate two separate and roughly contemporaneous routes of westward dispersal, one along the South Asian coast and the other through Silk Road trade. By better understanding the adoption of this water-demanding crop in the arid regions of West Asia, we explore an important chapter in human adaptation and agricultural decision making.
The pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) is commercially cultivated in semi-arid regions around the globe... more The pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) is commercially cultivated in semi-arid regions around the globe. Archaeobotanical, genetic, and linguistic data suggest that the pistachio was brought under cultivation somewhere within its wild range, spanning southern Central Asia, northern Iran, and northern Afghanistan. Historically, pistachio cultivation has primarily relied on grafting, suggesting that, as with many Eurasian tree crops, domestication resulted from genetically locking hybrids or favored individuals in place. Plant domestication and dispersal research has largely focused on weedy, highly adaptable, self-compatible annuals; in this discussion, we present a case study that involves a dioecious long-lived perennial-a domestication process that would have required a completely different traditional ecological knowledge system than that utilized for grain cultivation. We argue that the pistachio was brought under cultivation in southern Central Asia, spreading westward by at least 2000 years ago (maybe a few centuries earlier to the mountains of modern Syria) and moved eastward only at the end of the first millennium AD. The seeds remain rare in archaeological sites outside its native range, even into the mid-second millennium AD, and may not have been widely cultivated until the past few hundred years.
The urban center of Paykend was an exchange node just off the main corridor of the Silk Road in t... more The urban center of Paykend was an exchange node just off the main corridor of the Silk Road in the Bukhara Oasis on the edge of the hyperarid Kyzyl-Kum Desert. The city was occupied from the end of 4 century B.C.E. to the mid-12 century C.E.; our study focuses on the Qarakhanid period (C.E. 999-1211), the last imperial phase of urban occupation at Paykend before its abandonment. In this study, we present the results of an analysis of archaeobotanical remains recovered from a multifunction rabat, which appears to have comprised a domicile, military structure, center of commerce, and/or a caravanserai, a roadside inn for travelers. We shed light on how people adapted a productive economy to the local ecological constraints. By adding these data to the limited Qarakhanid archaeobotany from across Central Asia, we provide the first glimpses into cultivation, commerce, and consumption at a Silk Road trading town along the King's Road, the central artery of ancient Eurasia.
Until relatively recently, the centuries between Xiongnu and Türk domination in the Mongolian ste... more Until relatively recently, the centuries between Xiongnu and Türk domination in the Mongolian steppelands (both north and south of the Gobi Desert) appeared as an archaeological "dark age." In recent years however, archaeological discoveries have started to throw new light on this period, shattering long-held assumptions and, at the same time, generating new questions. Among the most important of these recent discoveries are five 5 th / early 6th century elite combs found at Yihe-nur in southeastern Inner Mongolia. Previous studies dealing with these sumptuously furnished tombs have focused on detailing 伊和淖尔 M6 出土项饰、腰带及其与欧亚大陆之间的联系 • 345 • connections with the contemporary Northern Wei court culture. However, a closer look at a peculiar type of pectoral found in M6 and a set of two exquisite parade belts found in M3 and M6, suggests that the owners of these tombs also adhered to fashions and shared expressions of status and power that were much more common in the steppes and in the "Western Regions" than in the Chinese heartland, pointing to elite networks spanning far across Central Eurasia. Particularly the two belts with carnelian inlays indicate a particular connection between the male tomb occupant in M6 and the possibly female tomb occupant of M3, although the exact character of that connection eludes us. At the same time, both the belts and the pectorals from M6 and M3 suggest links with the region of Eastern Transbaikalia.
Note: The volume was published in black-and-white, which rendered the maps all but unreadable. Th... more Note: The volume was published in black-and-white, which rendered the maps all but unreadable. This PDF contains the original color figures of the maps.
On the Question of Sasanian Presence in Sogdiana. Recent Results of Excavations at Paykand, 2016
The article covers the results of new excavations at the citadel of Paikend, an ancient city in t... more The article covers the results of new excavations at the citadel of Paikend, an ancient city in the south of Bukhara oasis (modern Uzbekistan). The data obtained demonstrated that an extensive construction work was performed in the 2nd half of the 3rd – 4th cc. A.D. New protective walls, garrison’s barracks were built and the Fire temple was rebuilt. The details of the temple’s layout find parallels in Iranian cult architecture. The mural paintings were found as well. It is possible that they were influenced by Sasanian art. Coins, pottery, small products had also undergone changes and are similar to the Kushano-Sasanian material assemblage of Bactria-Tokharistan. The hypothesis proposed that the phenomenon related with the expansion of Sasanian Iran into the Bukhara oasis.
Until relatively recently, the centuries between Xiongnu and Türk domination in the Mongolian st... more Until relatively recently, the centuries between Xiongnu and Türk domination in the Mongolian steppelands (both north and south of the Gobi Desert) appeared as an archaeological »dark age«. At the same time, the steppe empire of the Rouran has, compared to the polities of the Xiongnu and the Türks, received relatively little attention by modern historians. In recent years however, archaeological discoveries have started to throw new light on this period, shattering long-held assumptions and, at the same time, generating new questions. Among the most important of these recent discoveries are five 5th century elite tombs found at Yihe-nur in southeastern Inner Mongolia. Previous studies dealing with these sumpotously furnished tombs have been focused on detailing connections with the contemporary Northern Wei court culture, labeling the tomb owners either as »Xianbei« or as »Gaoche«. However, a closer look at a set of two exquisite parade belts and a peculiar type of pectoral found at Yihe-nur, suggests that the tomb owners of Yihe-nur also adhered to fashions that were much more common in the steppes and in the »Western Regions« than in the Chinese heartland, pointing to elite networks spanning far across Central Eurasia. Finally, this paper will inquire into the question how a better understanding of the Rouran polity and its elites can shed additional light on these elite networks in the northern Chinese frontier and beyond during the 5th and early 6th century.
The present article argues that the earliest attestation of the city of Paykand in Bukhārān Soghd... more The present article argues that the earliest attestation of the city of Paykand in Bukhārān Soghd is to be found in the memoirs of the ‘Western regions’ of the Beishi and the extant Weishu (both going back to the now lost original ‘Xiyu zhuan’ of the Weishu). This identification has so far been overlooked due to a scribal error. This earliest mentioning of Paykand goes in all likelihood back to information gathered by the Northern Wei embassy of the years 436-437, which visited the various countries of the ‘Western regions’ up to Chāch. Although the passage in question is relatively short, it nonetheless provides us with important details regarding the urbanization process in Paykand, the mercantile atmosphere already at this early stage of the development of the city, and the earliest attestation of rice in Sogdiana. It is quite possible that these details were provided to the Chinese emissaries by an informant from Bukhārān Sogd.
The following short remarks on the cultural geography of the various oasis regions and the steppe... more The following short remarks on the cultural geography of the various oasis regions and the steppe lands north of Bactria during the Hellenistic and post-Hellenistic period (3rd century BCE to 1st century CE) attempt to set the spatial stage for the present chapter. One needs to bear in mind that they are necessarily brief and somewhat schematic. Also, I should indicate here that I partially draw for this geographical overview from later, better attested periods (on this method see the next section 'Sources and methodological problems'). My main aim is to briefy fesh-out the character of the regions north of Bactria as an extensive and heterogeneous frontier closely connected with the vast Central Eurasian steppe lands. Bactria's closest northern neighbour, beyond the offshoots of the Hissar range to the northwest, was the historical region of Sogdiana (Lyonnet this volume), 1 subdivided into several oasis territories along the Zerafshan and Kashka-Darya rivers: Maracanda (Samarqand) along the middle course of the Zerafshan, Bukhara in the delta area of the river, Nakhshab (Qarshi) at the lower reaches and Kesh (Shahri-Sabz/Kitab) at the upper reaches of the Kashka-Darya. Enclosed by the Zerafshan in the north and the Kashka-Darya to the south lies an extensive desert-steppe (fttingly called ūrta chūl-'inner steppe'-in Late Medieval times). The northern and northeastern borders of Bactria were framed by a vast high-mountain zone. Beyond we fnd a series of oasis-steppe regions belonging to the catchment area of the upper and middle Syr-Darya (known to the Greeks as Iaxartes and, erroneously, identifed with the European Tanaïs, the Don river), called Fergana, Ilaq, and Chach during Medieval times. North of the Turkestan Range several small alluvial fans emptying into the Hunger steppe form a region known as Ustrushana during the Early Middle Ages. Further to the northwest, beyond the Kyzyl-kum desert (where one fnds important turquoise deposits) and downstream along the Oxus/Amu Darya, lay the region of Chorasmia, extending over most parts of the delta area of the Oxus/Amu Darya. This region provided an important gateway to the nomadic world of the Ustyurt plateau and the southern Urals, as well as-via the then still functioning Uzboi river-to the Caspian shores and beyond (the southern Caucasus and the northern Pontic regions). Nearby, a similar delta region is formed by the Syr-Darya further to the 78
Brief report on excavations of kurgans and kurgan ensembles at Lyavandak and Kyzyl-tepa in Bukhar... more Brief report on excavations of kurgans and kurgan ensembles at Lyavandak and Kyzyl-tepa in Bukharan Sogdiana, dating between the 3rd cent. BCE and the 2nd/3rd cent. CE.
A brief report on the results of works at Bashtepa and Tali-Surkh in Bukharan Soghd in 2018, incl... more A brief report on the results of works at Bashtepa and Tali-Surkh in Bukharan Soghd in 2018, including new finds of terracotta figurines, imitations of 'Megarian bowls', and loom weights.
Using Structure from Motion (SfM) software and low-cost UAVs equipped with digital camera systems... more Using Structure from Motion (SfM) software and low-cost UAVs equipped with digital camera systems, archaeologists record high-resolution image series of sites and produce orthoimages, elevation models and textured 3D models. In practice, however, one of the biggest challenges in image-based 3D reconstruction remains ensuring that the image series contains sufficient overlap and full coverage of the site. In this respect, video streams are an intriguing alternative (or complementary) source of image data. Although each individual video frame has a relatively low resolution, the enormous number of frames and the almost complete overlap between consecutive frames provide ideal input for SfM reconstruction algorithms. Another attractive aspect is the sheer speed at which distortion free HD video can be recorded by current consumer cameras. Our primary aim is the development of truly rapid and robust 3D recording technologies. We constrain ourselves to freely available software and low-cost consumer hardware. In October 2014 we put our ambitions to the test by documenting 13 monumental medieval fortresses in the harsh climate of Uzbekistan. The results are encouraging not only because they show how much can be achieved with very limited resources and in adverse environmental conditions, but also that current SfM and surface reconstruction algorithms are capable of handling the low-contrast, sparsely structured remains of typical mud brick architecture. This paper discusses a number of key aspects and techniques to consider on the way to establishing a best-practice routine for SfM-based reconstruction using UAV-mounted cameras and video streams (as well as mixed video and image-based reconstructions). We discuss aspects ranging from pre-flight planning (weather and light conditions, operational safety, legal restrictions, etc.) to hardware selection, modification and maintenance (always focused on low-cost and sturdy consumer hardware), flight control software (including mobile applications) and data processing. Regarding the latter, we consider both on-site data processing of sparse preview models and off-site processing of complete, fully textured models.
Preview from S. Stark, "Xianbei, Tegreg, and Rouran-Abar: Yihe-nur and the Nomadic World of Inner... more Preview from S. Stark, "Xianbei, Tegreg, and Rouran-Abar: Yihe-nur and the Nomadic World of Inner Asia between the 2nd and the 5th /early 6th cent. CE," in: Juliano/Lerner (eds.), Before Pingcheng. The Xianbei in Inner Mongolia 4th-6th century (forthcoming)
Preview from S. Stark, "Xianbei, Tegreg, and Rouran-Abar: Yihe-nur and the Nomadic World of Inner... more Preview from S. Stark, "Xianbei, Tegreg, and Rouran-Abar: Yihe-nur and the Nomadic World of Inner Asia between the 2nd and the 5th /early 6th cent. CE," in: Juliano/Lerner (eds.), Before Pingcheng. The Xianbei in Inner Mongolia 4th-6th century (forthcoming)
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Papers by Sören W Stark
This paper reflects the main results of the works of the Uzbek-American Archaeological Expedition in Bukhara in 2020–2024. As a result of the research, the south-western corner of the ancient fortress, reinforced by a rectangular corner tower, was discovered. This fortress was erected earlier than the second half of the 2nd century BC. It is very likely that it appeared here during the Seleucid rule in Western Sogdiana (c. 305–230 BC). Not earlier than the 2nd — 3rd centuries AD to the west of the open wall with the corner tower the separate fortified buildings appeared, which were excavated in varying degrees. In the first half of the 5th century AD the walls of the early (first) Shahristan of Bukhara proper were erected. This wall was opened by excavations to a length of 24 m and, in all probability, existed until the second half — the end of the 7th century. Finally, the remains of another defensive wall were recorded by excavations 64 m west of the first western wall of the shahristan, which indicates the growth of the city territory. It is not excluded that this growth is connected with the construction program of Bukhar Khudat Bidun/ Nidun at the Ark until 680.
Keywords: Bukhara, fortifications, fortress wall, city wall, Antiquity, Early Middle Ages
In recent years however, archaeological discoveries have started to throw new light on this period, shattering long-held assumptions and, at the same time, generating new questions. Among the most important of these recent discoveries are five 5th century elite tombs found at Yihe-nur in southeastern Inner Mongolia.
Previous studies dealing with these sumpotously furnished tombs have been focused on detailing connections with the contemporary Northern Wei court culture, labeling the tomb owners either as »Xianbei« or as »Gaoche«. However, a closer look at a set of two exquisite parade belts and a peculiar type of pectoral found at Yihe-nur, suggests that the tomb owners of Yihe-nur also adhered to fashions that were much more
common in the steppes and in the »Western Regions« than in the Chinese heartland, pointing to elite networks spanning far across Central Eurasia. Finally, this paper will inquire into the question how a better understanding of the Rouran polity and its elites can shed additional light on these elite networks in the northern Chinese frontier and beyond during the 5th and early 6th century.
Although the passage in question is relatively short, it nonetheless provides us with important details regarding the urbanization process in Paykand, the mercantile atmosphere already at this early stage of the development of the city, and the earliest attestation of rice in Sogdiana. It is quite possible that these details were provided to the Chinese emissaries by an informant from Bukhārān Sogd.
Keywords
Paykand, Sogdiana, Weishu, rice.
This paper reflects the main results of the works of the Uzbek-American Archaeological Expedition in Bukhara in 2020–2024. As a result of the research, the south-western corner of the ancient fortress, reinforced by a rectangular corner tower, was discovered. This fortress was erected earlier than the second half of the 2nd century BC. It is very likely that it appeared here during the Seleucid rule in Western Sogdiana (c. 305–230 BC). Not earlier than the 2nd — 3rd centuries AD to the west of the open wall with the corner tower the separate fortified buildings appeared, which were excavated in varying degrees. In the first half of the 5th century AD the walls of the early (first) Shahristan of Bukhara proper were erected. This wall was opened by excavations to a length of 24 m and, in all probability, existed until the second half — the end of the 7th century. Finally, the remains of another defensive wall were recorded by excavations 64 m west of the first western wall of the shahristan, which indicates the growth of the city territory. It is not excluded that this growth is connected with the construction program of Bukhar Khudat Bidun/ Nidun at the Ark until 680.
Keywords: Bukhara, fortifications, fortress wall, city wall, Antiquity, Early Middle Ages
In recent years however, archaeological discoveries have started to throw new light on this period, shattering long-held assumptions and, at the same time, generating new questions. Among the most important of these recent discoveries are five 5th century elite tombs found at Yihe-nur in southeastern Inner Mongolia.
Previous studies dealing with these sumpotously furnished tombs have been focused on detailing connections with the contemporary Northern Wei court culture, labeling the tomb owners either as »Xianbei« or as »Gaoche«. However, a closer look at a set of two exquisite parade belts and a peculiar type of pectoral found at Yihe-nur, suggests that the tomb owners of Yihe-nur also adhered to fashions that were much more
common in the steppes and in the »Western Regions« than in the Chinese heartland, pointing to elite networks spanning far across Central Eurasia. Finally, this paper will inquire into the question how a better understanding of the Rouran polity and its elites can shed additional light on these elite networks in the northern Chinese frontier and beyond during the 5th and early 6th century.
Although the passage in question is relatively short, it nonetheless provides us with important details regarding the urbanization process in Paykand, the mercantile atmosphere already at this early stage of the development of the city, and the earliest attestation of rice in Sogdiana. It is quite possible that these details were provided to the Chinese emissaries by an informant from Bukhārān Sogd.
Keywords
Paykand, Sogdiana, Weishu, rice.
Our primary aim is the development of truly rapid and robust 3D recording technologies. We constrain ourselves to freely available software and low-cost consumer hardware. In October 2014 we put our ambitions to the test by documenting 13 monumental medieval fortresses in the harsh climate of Uzbekistan. The results are encouraging not only because they show how much can be achieved with very limited resources and in adverse environmental conditions, but also that current SfM and surface reconstruction algorithms are capable of handling the low-contrast, sparsely structured remains of typical mud brick architecture.
This paper discusses a number of key aspects and techniques to consider on the way to establishing a best-practice routine for SfM-based reconstruction using UAV-mounted cameras and video streams (as well as mixed video and image-based reconstructions). We discuss aspects ranging from pre-flight planning (weather and light conditions, operational safety, legal restrictions, etc.) to hardware selection, modification and maintenance (always focused on low-cost and sturdy consumer hardware), flight control software (including mobile applications) and data processing. Regarding the latter, we consider both on-site data processing of sparse preview models and off-site processing of complete, fully textured models.