Departmnent of Coastal Systems

Many birds lay eggs speckled with black or reddish-brown spots of protoporphyrin pigment, but the function of these spots is debated. Two recent hypotheses have received considerable attention. Under the “signaling-function hypothesis,” speckling reflects female quality and influences allocation of male parental care; under the “structural-function hypothesis,” the speckles strengthen the eggshell when calcium is scarce. The evidence for each is taxonomically uneven. For instance, evidence for the signaling-function hypothesis comes from cavity-nesting and uniparentally incubating species in which the viewing conditions and possibilities for males to assess the speckling are limited, and male response to speckling is indirect (i.e., female-feeding) or postponed (i.e., chick-feeding). We tested the predictions of both hypotheses in a biparentally incubating ground-nesting shorebird, the Northern Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), in which the potential for a direct male response to eggshell speckling exists and visual inspection of the eggs is not hindered by light availability in a nest cavity. The speckling parameters (spot intensity, distribution, and cover) were repeatable within Northern Lapwing clutches, a requirement for a sexually selected signal, but we found no relationship between male incubation and speckling. However, the spots were associated with thinner areas of eggshell, which strongly supports the suggestion of a structural (strengthening) function. Our results do not support the signaling-function hypothesis of eggshell speckling, but extend the structural-function hypothesis and prior findings (that speckling occurs primarily at thinner areas of the shell) to other avian taxa. Furthermore, if the generally accepted view that Northern Lapwing eggs are cryptically marked is correct, our findings suggest that more than one significant function can drive the evolution of avian eggshell pigmentation.

It is well established that once birds have laid their eggs they sometimes incubate non-egg objects. However, reports of birds incubating solely non-egg objects (without prior manipulation by researchers) are rare. Here we report on our observation of a Long-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus scolopaceus incubating a clutch composed entirely of mammalian bones. To our knowledge, this is the first report on (a) incubation of foreign objects in Scolopacidae, (b) incubation of a ‘clutch’ composed entirely of bones, and (c) incubation of foreign objects in a nest atypical for this species in both construction and nest habitat. We discuss possible explanations for this presumably maladaptive behaviour.

Biparental incubation is a form of cooperation between parents, but it is not conflict-free because parents trade off incubation against other activities (e.g. self-maintenance, mating opportunities). How parents resolve such conflict and achieve cooperation remains unknown. To understand better the potential for conflict, cooperation and the constraints on incubation behaviour, investigation of the parents’ behaviour, both during incubation and when they are off incubation-duty, is necessary. Using a combination of automated incubation-monitoring and radiotelemetry we simultaneously investigated the behaviours of both parents in the biparentally incubating Semipalmated Sandpiper Calidris pusilla, a shorebird breeding under continuous daylight in the high Arctic. Here, we describe the off-nest behaviour of 32 off-duty parents from 17 nests. Off-duty parents roamed on average 224 m from their nest, implying that direct communication with the incubating partner is unlikely. On average, off-duty parents spent only 59% of their time feeding. Off-nest distance and behaviour differed between the sexes, as did incubation behaviour, and varied with time and weather. Males roamed less far from the nest and spent less time feeding than did females. At night, parents stayed closer to the nest and tended to spend less time feeding than during the day. Further exploratory analyses revealed that the time spent feeding increased over the incubation period, and that at night, but not during the day, off-duty parents spent more time feeding under relatively windy conditions. Hence, under energetically stressful conditions, parents may be forced to feed more. Our results suggest that parents are likely to conflict over the favourable feeding times, i.e. over when to incubate (within a day or incubation period). Our study also shows that Semipalmated Sandpiper parents do not continuously keep track of each other to optimize incubation scheduling and, hence, that the off-duty parent's decision to return closer to the nest drives the length of incubation bouts

Many birds lay eggs speckled with black or reddish-brown spots of protoporphyrin pigment, but the function of these spots is debated. Two recent hypotheses have received considerable attention. Under the “signaling-function hypothesis,” speckling reflects female quality and influences allocation of male parental care; under the “structural-function hypothesis,” the speckles strengthen the eggshell when calcium is scarce. The evidence for each

Purpose -This paper aims to examine the context and nature of marketing used by nonprofit organizations in the Czech Republic. Design/methodology/approach -A number of senior self-designated marketing managers in a wide range of non-profit organizations in Prague were interviewed to generate a descriptive narrative of what these key persons understood marketing to be and how they devised and implemented marketing within organizational strategy. Findings -The findings paralleled that of other research (1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005) on the understanding and role of marketing within the profit sector of the Czech Republic. While marketing was identified as an interesting and powerful concept, non-profit policy makers generally had a limited understanding of a marketing theory or of the context in which exchange transactions occurred. Research limitations/implications -This project was designed as an initial survey. The limited number of representatives interviewed and their purposeful selection from a small number of high-profile non-profit organizations limit the reliability of the findings and reduce the extent to which they can be generalized. Practical implications -This paper provides a useful entry point for those interested in the use of marketing in the Czech Republic, a very significant transformative economy in the centre of Europe. Since one of the authors is a native Czech speaker, the paper reviews relevant marketing and non-profit literature in Czech as well as English. Originality/value -While there has been some interest in the understanding and practice of marketing in the profit sector, it is believed that this is the first paper to address the non-profit sectora sector that plays a very significant role within transformative economies.

Biparental incubation is a form of cooperation between parents, but it is not conflict-free because parents trade off incubation against other activities (e.g. self-maintenance, mating opportunities). How parents resolve such conflict and achieve cooperation remains unknown. To understand better the potential for conflict, cooperation and the constraints on incubation behaviour, investigation of the parents' behaviour, both during incubation and when they are off incubation-duty, is necessary. Using a combination of automated incubation-monitoring and radiotelemetry we simultaneously investigated the behaviours of both parents in the biparentally incubating Semipalmated Sandpiper Calidris pusilla, a shorebird breeding under continuous daylight in the high Arctic. Here, we describe the off-nest behaviour of 32 off-duty parents from 17 nests. Off-duty parents roamed on average 224 m from their nest, implying that direct communication with the incubating partner is unlikely. On average, off-duty parents spent only 59% of their time feeding. Offnest distance and behaviour (like previously reported incubation behaviour) differed between the sexes, and varied with time and weather. Males roamed less far from the nest and spent less time feeding than did females. At night, parents stayed closer to the nest and tended to spend less time feeding than during the day. Further exploratory analyses revealed that the time spent feeding increased over the incubation period, and that at night, but not during the day, off-duty parents spent more time feeding under relatively windy conditions. Hence, under energetically stressful conditions, parents may be forced to feed more. Our results suggest that parents are likely to conflict over the favourable feeding times, i.e. over when to incubate (within a day or incubation period). Our study also indicates that Semipalmated Sandpiper parents do not continuously keep track of each other to optimize incubation scheduling and, hence, that the off-duty parent's decision to remain closer to the nest drives the length of incubation bouts.

The behavioural rhythms of organisms are thought to be under strong selection, influenced by the rhythmicity of the environment1, 2, 3, 4. Such behavioural rhythms are well studied in isolated individuals under laboratory conditions1, 5, but free-living individuals have to temporally synchronize their activities with those of others, including potential mates, competitors, prey and predators6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Individuals can temporally segregate their daily activities (for example, prey avoiding predators, subordinates avoiding dominants) or synchronize their activities (for example, group foraging, communal defence, pairs reproducing or caring for offspring)6, 7, 8, 9, 11. The behavioural rhythms that emerge from such social synchronization and the underlying evolutionary and ecological drivers that shape them remain poorly understood5, 6, 7, 9. Here we investigate these rhythms in the context of biparental care, a particularly sensitive phase of social synchronization12 where pair members potentially compromise their individual rhythms. Using data from 729 nests of 91 populations of 32 biparentally incubating shorebird species, where parents synchronize to achieve continuous coverage of developing eggs, we report remarkable within- and between-species diversity in incubation rhythms. Between species, the median length of one parent’s incubation bout varied from 1–19 h, whereas period length—the time in which a parent’s probability to incubate cycles once between its highest and lowest value—varied from 6–43 h. The length of incubation bouts was unrelated to variables reflecting energetic demands, but species relying on crypsis (the ability to avoid detection by other animals) had longer incubation bouts than those that are readily visible or who actively protect their nest against predators. Rhythms entrainable to the 24-h light–dark cycle were less prevalent at high latitudes and absent in 18 species. Our results indicate that even under similar environmental conditions and despite 24-h environmental cues, social synchronization can generate far more diverse behavioural rhythms than expected from studies of individuals in captivity5, 6, 7, 9. The risk of predation, not the risk of starvation, may be a key factor underlying the diversity in these rhythms.

The behavioural rhythms of organisms are thought to be under strong selection, influenced by the rhythmicity of the environment 1–4. Such behavioural rhythms are well studied in isolated individuals under laboratory conditions 1,5 , but free-living individuals have to temporally synchronize their activities with those of others, including potential mates, competitors, prey and predators 6–10. Individuals can temporally segregate their daily activities (for example, prey avoiding predators, subordinates avoiding dominants) or synchronize their activities (for example, group foraging, communal defence, pairs reproducing or caring for offspring) 6–9,11. The behavioural rhythms that emerge from such social synchronization and the underlying evolutionary and ecological drivers that shape them remain poorly understood 5–7,9. Here we investigate these rhythms in the context of biparental care, a particularly sensitive phase of social synchronization 12 where pair members potentially compromise their individual rhythms. Using data from 729 nests of 91 populations of 32 biparentally incubating shorebird species, where parents synchronize to achieve continuous coverage of developing eggs, we report remarkable within-and between-species diversity in incubation rhythms. Between species, the median length of one parent's incubation bout varied from 1–19 h, whereas period length—the time in which a parent's probability to incubate cycles once between its highest and lowest value—varied from 6–43 h. The length of incubation bouts was unrelated to variables reflecting energetic demands, but species relying on crypsis (the ability to avoid detection by other animals) had longer incubation bouts than those that are readily visible or who actively protect their nest against predators. Rhythms entrainable to the 24-h light–dark cycle were less prevalent at high latitudes and absent in 18 species. Our results indicate that even under similar environmental conditions and despite 24-h environmental cues, social synchronization can generate far more diverse behavioural rhythms than expected from studies of individuals in captivity 5–7,9. The risk of predation, not the risk of starvation, may be a key factor underlying the diversity in these rhythms.