Archaeology

The Marine Archaeology Centre (MAC) of the National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) has been conducting nearshore sea bottom surveys since 1983 to locate excavation sites of ancient remains such as sunken settlements, anchors, shipwrecks and other evidence of ancient shipping. The coastal waters of Maharashtra have remained a blank spot on the map of underwater investigations for a long time.

Abstract: Pindara has been an important religious centre since the early historical period as it has been recorded in several ancient texts. An onshore exploration on the northwestern coast of Saurashtra brought to light the remains of a temple complex presently lying in inter tidal zone of Pindara. There are several temples on the coast of Pindara, which are dated between 7th and 10th century AD The archaeological evidence indicates the advancement of shoreline during last 1000 years near Pindara.

Abstract: Coastal explorations were carried out along the west coast of India at Elephanta Island, Malvan, Vijaydurg, Sopara and Chaul. A number of lead and copper coins as well as pottery of different cultural periods were found. Onshore explorations at Malvan and Vijaydurg yielded stone anchors of the Historical period, the first of their kind to be found in this region. The purpose of the submerged stone structure off Vijaydurg appears to have been damage to enemy ships or protect the fort from wave and current action.

Abstract: Stone anchors have been used as a primary source of information on ancient navigation by marine archaeologists since long. These anchors used by ancient mariners are often noticed underwater at various places across the world. Stone anchors are also used as indications of ancient trade routes and sizes of boats. Marine archaeological investigations have brought to light a large number of stone anchors occurring along the Indian coast.

Abstract: Since the beginning of maritime archaeological studies, several types of stone anchors have been either retrieved or located along the coast of India. These stone anchors show their evolution to the development and have contributed immensely towards the growth of maritime trade. With increase in the carrying capacity of ships, changes made in their sizes and construction patterns, subsequently, the size and shape of the anchors also got modified.

Abstract: Mahabalipuram, the famous centre of Pallava art and architecture, is situated on the coast of Tamil Nadu, India. The local traditions and the foreign accounts vividly refer to the submergence of six temples out of seven that existed here. Recent underwater archaeological explorations in the area have revealed many structural remains including fallen walls, scattered dressed stone blocks, a few steps leading to a platform and many other structural remains.

Abstract: Last two decades of marine archaeological research along the Indian coast has brought to light a large number of stone anchors of different types and sizes, indicating that the Indian coast has witnessed brisk maritime activities in the past. Gujarat provides evidence of the earliest such activity in the form of dockyard and stone anchors at Lothal and a jetty and stone anchors from Kuntasi.

Abstract: Archaeological evidence and literary sources mention that India had several ports and trade centres dating back to the Harappan period onwards. Archaeological explorations and excavations have brought to light a number of coastal structures such as dockyards, jetties, lighthouses, wharves and warehouses related to maritime activities of India. Lighthouses, warehouses and wharves have been located at Poompuhar, Arikamedu, Dharanikota, Chilika and Mahabalipuram on the east coast of India.

The Lakshadweep Islands (Fig. 1) lie on the west coast of India. Until the opening of the Suez Canal they lay on the trade-route between the Mediterranean and South-East Asian countries, and in ancient times were used as a stopover to take on fresh water. It is difficult to ascertain exactly when these islands were inhabited but Saigal (1990) has postulated that they were first settled c. 1500 BC. The ships of Gujarat might have passed these islands on their voyages to Egypt c.

Abstract: In the maritime history of India, Orissa (ancient Kalinga) played a significant role in spreading Indian culture to other parts of the world, including Africa, Rome and Southwest Asia. Archaeological findings, explorations and excavations at various sites, epigraphical and numismatic evidences of different periods, and literary records, enabled the reconstruction of the maritime history of Orissa.

The basic texts for our understanding of the construction of Roman harbours are found in Vitruvius's De Architectura 2.6. 1, and 5.12. 2–6, written c. 25 BC. A significant portion of these passages concerns the technology of building harbour structures in hydraulic concrete, a mortar of pozzolana, lime and water combined with aggregate, that could be placed in inundated wooden formwork in the sea.

Abstract: Distinct developments have been observed in the evolution of stone and iron anchors. A wide variety of stone anchors have been reported from Indian waters, preceding the introduction of iron anchors by the Europeans. Recently, an Admiralty Long Shanked iron anchor measuring 3.30 m long with a 4.37 m wooden stock was recovered off Aguada Bay, Goa at a water depth of 11 m. The anchor has been tentatively dated contemporary with the maritime history of Goa and Portugal between the 16th and 17th centuries.

Abstract: Dabhol was an important medieval-period port town on the Maharashtra coast. An archaeological exploration at Dabhol has revealed four stone anchors with remains of wood in fluke hole. These anchors were retrieved from Dabhol creek during a dredging operation for the channel. Two samples of the wood attached to the fluke holes of an anchor were dated using radiocarbon method are 590 plus or minus 90 yrs BP and 600 plus or minus 70 yrs BP respectively.

Abstract: Archaeological, epigraphical, numismatic and other sources confirm that similar to ports in other coastal states of India, the ports of Andhra Pradesh had played a significant role in spreading Indian culture overseas to other countries.

A large number of artefacts of Indus Valley origin have been found in Oman and the other Gulf countries (Cleuziou, 1992; Ratnagar, 2004), indicating contact in the 3rd millennium BC. Excavations of several Harappan sites in coastal Gujarat indicate that people of this region were actively involved in maritime practices (Gaur, 2000). The excavators of Lothal (Rao, 1979) and Kuntasi (Dhavalikar et al., 1996) identified a dockyard and jetty respectively.

Dwarka, 22 22 'N and 69 05'E, is in the extreme west of the Saurashtra Peninsula, on the Arabian Sea. The name Dwarka is derived from Dwar, a door, and it is believed that in ancient times it was a flourishing port city, considered to be the gateway to the mainland. Different scholars have propounded different theories about its location. Out of various sites suggested by them, the present site is the one which is considered to have been submerged by the sea.

Summary India had a very active maritime trade contact with the Roman world between the 4th century BC and the 4th century AD. In this context recent finds of stone anchors, potsherds, lead anchors and a lead ingot from 5 to 8 m water-depth near Bet Dwarka jetty is significant. The sherds include amphoras, jars, bowls and lids.