Papers by Kulcsár Krisztina
Pontes, Dec 18, 2023
„Von seiner Hochheit allenthalben recommendiret wird”. Relations and career
during the first yea... more „Von seiner Hochheit allenthalben recommendiret wird”. Relations and career
during the first years of Prince Albert of Saxony, Duke of Teschen, lieutenantgovernor
of Hungary
Based on archival material from the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery Archive in
Budapest, this study examines the extent to which the selection and advancement of
officials were influenced by Prince Albert of Saxony (who became Duke of Saxe-Teschen in 1766). He was appointed by Maria Theresa, his future mother-in-law, as the lieutenantgovernor of the Kingdom of Hungary in late December 1765. From the official papers, it is possible to ascertain the reasons given for changes in personnel in the Hungarian Royal Lieutenancy Council, the primary government body (of which the Prince was the president) responsible for domestic policy in Hungary. The period under consideration is between 1765 and 1771. Th e influence of Prince Albert, an outsider in Hungary, was hardly discernable in the early four years. Appointments were invariably decided by the sovereign, Queen Maria Theresa. During this time, Prince Albert’s role was mostly limited to proposing individuals for non-salaried, so-called supernumerary posts or honorary councillorships. However, following the introduction of a new, more professonalised administration in 1769, the Hungarian Royal Lieutenancy Council required more experienced and qualified staff. Consequently, Prince Albert had the opportunity to advance his trusted officials who had proven their administrative efficiency. He achieved the promotion of talented secretaries to the rank of councillor, for example, even if it occasially involved unorthodox methods. The sources also show that low-paid, lowerranking officials received a pay increase, and from 1776, a special bonus. Hence, the files of the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery clearly demonstrate that Prince Albert had an influential role in proposing candidates for administrative offices.
Joseph II is often considered to be a much travelled emperor. While his travels abroad under the ... more Joseph II is often considered to be a much travelled emperor. While his travels abroad under the pseudonym of Count Falkenstein have been widely studied, his tours within his own realms are much less researched. Rather than pursuing Romantic adventures, his principal aim was to learn about the political, military and social conditions of his realm and its inhabitants. The purpose of this contribution is to analyse the travels Joseph II undertook in Hungary, Transylvania, Slavonia and the Banat between 1768 and 1773. With the help of examples, the article explores how the various experiences Joseph II had during his visits influenced his ideas, his reform policy and ultimately his practice of rule.
Ein exemplarisches Handbuch, 2004
In the eighteenth century, the Hungarian estates had the greatest influence among the estates of ... more In the eighteenth century, the Hungarian estates had the greatest influence among the estates of the provinces of the Habsburg Monarchy. The main representative of the estates was the palatine, appointed by the monarch but elected by the estates at the Diet. He performed substantial judicial, administrative, financial, and military tasks in the Kingdom of Hungary. After 1526, the Habsburg sovereigns opted to rule the country on several occasions through governors who were appointed precisely because of the broad influence of the palatine. In this essay, I examine the reasons why the politically strong Hungarian estates in the eighteenth century accepted the appointment of governors instead of a palatine. I also consider what the rights and duties of these governors were, the extent to which these rights and duties differed from those of the palatine, and what changes they went through in the early modern period. I show how the idea and practice of appointing archdukes as governors o...
FONS, 2002
Nach seiner Reise im Großfürstentum Siebenbürgen im Jahre 1773 reichte Joseph II. eine "Geheime L... more Nach seiner Reise im Großfürstentum Siebenbürgen im Jahre 1773 reichte Joseph II. eine "Geheime Liste über die in Siebenbürgen angestellte Gubernial- und Thesaurariats-Räthe, wie auch Obergespänne, Königsrichter..." seiner Mutter ein. Die Liste enthält die Charakteristiken des Kaisers über die Staatsbeamten, über ihre Fähigkeiten, oder Unfähigkeiten, und ihre Gebrauchbarkeit für den Staat.
Ein Jahr später wurden grundlegende personale Veränderungen in Siebenbürgens Ämtern durchgeführt. Anhand eines Vergleichs der Aussagen der Liste und der entlassenen bzw. beförderten Beamten kann festgestellt werden. daß der persönliche Kontakt, und der Eindruck Josephs II. ausschlaggebend für diese Veränderungen war. Die unfähigen, faulen, nationalen oder religiösen Voreingenommenheiten verfallenen Beamten wurden jubiliert, die talentierten und fleißigen auf neue Posten gesetzt. Mit Hilfe von Akten und Beamtenlisten kann bewiesen werden, daß auch in den späteren Zäsurjahren (1777: Ernennung Samuel Bruckenthals zum Gubernator; 1784: Errichtung der elf neuen Komitate; 1786: Errichtung der drei Distrikte) die schon 1773 kennengelernten, von Kaiser gelobten und geschätzten Staatsbeamten befördert wurden, um die Schlüsselpositionen des Großfürstentums zu besetzen.
In: Egyed Emese–Pakó László–Sófalvi Emese (szerk.): Certamen VII. Nyelv-, irodalom-, néprajz-, színház-, film- és zenetudomány, történelem. , 2020
The travel of Joseph II in Transylvania in 1773 and its impact on the Transylvanian administratio... more The travel of Joseph II in Transylvania in 1773 and its impact on the Transylvanian administration
Joseph II embarked on his journey in Transylvania (and Galicia) between the 6th of May and the 13th of September 1773 in order to familiarize himself with the two provinces of the Habsburg Monarchy. In order to lessen the financial burden of his visits on his subjects, the emperor neglected the protocols of the ceremonial court travellings, and opted for a simpler, thus more cost-efficient way of organizing it. ‘Incognito’ in his perception did not mean travelling in secret under a false identity, rather a particular way of organizing and undertaking his journey. His primary aim was to avoid the prescribed ceremonial elements of a court travel, its suffocating etiquette, social obligations and festivities. He travelled by a simple and not an elegantly decorated coach or by horse, and was accompanied by a small number of hand-picked confidants. Several authorities were implicated in the organizing process. The Transylvanian Court Chancellery forwarded the decrees of the Emperor and the planned route to the Transylvanian Gubernium, which instructed the Transylvanian counties, seats and districts of their duties. They had to provide provisions for relays and for accommodating quarters, and to perform only the necessary maintenance works of the roads and bridges. The local military authorities were informed, too, by the Imperial War Council. In Transylvania the Transylvanian General Commando of Sibiu (Nagyszeben) was in charge of the preparations, and the military troops had the duty to supply the travelers with saddles, horses, and military escort.
Being a co-sovereign charged with the military problems of the Empire, Joseph II was interested in particular in inspecting the fortifications and the military troops of the Grand Principality. He also had the chance to gather personal impressions on the appointed bureaucrats and on the functioning of the whole administrative network of Transylvania. During his audiences and other informal conversations, he took thorough, often ironical notes on the professional knowledge, abilities and efficiency of the office-holders, and their personal opinion on various subjects. These personal notes show the young Joseph’ proficiency in evaluating the personalities of his subordinates. As a consequence of his visit, in the next year important changes were made in the administration of Transylvania: the activity of certain offices was reorganized, and several leading officials were dismissed, reassigned or new ones were commissioned. Our sources clearly indicate that the newly assigned officials were those who made a good impression on Joseph II during his journey, and they were to become the new leading officials of the 1770s and 1780s (or even after these decades) in Transylvania.
Levéltári Közlemények, 2020
“What to look out for during a plague” Epidemic control on the border zone and inside the Kingdom... more “What to look out for during a plague” Epidemic control on the border zone and inside the Kingdom of Hungary during the eighteenth century
On the southern and western frontiers of the Habsburg Monarchy the construction of a quarantine-line began after the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, and it was completed in the 1760s and 1770s. The regulations of the quarantine, the duties of the personnel were determined according to unitary principles by the Healthcare Normative (Generale normativum in re sanitatis) of 1770. It listed in the Kingdom of Hungary and Croatia eight, in the Banat of Temeswar four, and in the Grand Principality of Transylvania and at the mountain passes nine entry point to the
country. On the northern border nine quarantine stations were built, which performed not only sanitary, but also defence duties, in the fear of a Russian or Prussian invasion, but only after 1770. Those who entered to the country from abroad had to spend 21, during pandemic period 42 days in the quarantine stations, which were built according to the strict precautionary regulations. The personnel of the quarantine station disinfected the livestock, goods and other cargo with washing, ventilation and sometimes fumigation.
The epidemic control within the country can be known in particular from the measures against the plague of 1738 and 1743. The general central provision did not exist at the time and the local defensive instructions were different. However, the main goal was to block the infected and to restrict the free movement of the possibly infected people, so the large gatherings (such as fairs, masses and funerals) were banned. Those, who violated these instructions, could be sentenced to death. Houses and movables were disinfected with sulphur, slack lime and vinegar,
and fumigation was used often too. Travelling inside the country was only possible with a special document, which proved that the holder came from an uninfected area, or spent the necessary quarantine period. Until the invention of the appropriate vaccination, the containment, surveillance, distancing and disinfection were used as methods to curb infectious epidemics.
Hungarian Historical Review, 2021
In the eighteenth century, the Hungarian estates had the greatest influence among the estates of ... more In the eighteenth century, the Hungarian estates had the greatest influence among the estates of the provinces of the Habsburg Monarchy. The main representative of the estates was the palatine, appointed by the monarch but elected by the estates at the Diet. He performed substantial judicial, administrative, financial, and military tasks in the Kingdom of Hungary. After 1526, the Habsburg sovereigns opted to rule the country on several occasions through governors who were appointed precisely because of the broad influence of the palatine. In this essay, I examine the reasons why the politically strong Hungarian estates in the eighteenth century accepted the appointment of governors instead of a palatine. I also consider what the rights and duties of these governors were, the extent to which these rights and duties differed from those of the palatine, and what changes they went through in the early modern period. I show how the idea and practice of appointing archdukes as governors or palatines was conceived and evolved at the end of the eighteenth century. The circumstances of these appointments of Francis Stephen of Lorraine, future son-in-law of Charles VI, Prince Albert of Saxony(-Teschen), future son-in-law of Maria Theresa and Archduke Joseph, shed light on considerations and interests which lay in the background of the compromises and political bargains made between the Habsburg(-Lorraine) rulers and the Hungarian estates.
In: Silvia Némethová (zost.): Mária Terézia a jej doba vo svetle pomocných vied historických. Zborník príspevkov z vedeckej konferencie s medzinárodnou účasťou pri príležitosti 300. výročia narodenia Márie Terézie. Bratislava, Univerzitná knižnica v Bratislave, 209–217., 2017
In: Kulcsár, Krisztina; Forgó, András (Hrsg.) „Die habsburgische Variante des Aufgeklärten Absolutismus”. Beiträge zur Mitregentschaft Josephs II., 1765–1780 : "A felvilágosult abszolutizmus Habsburg-variánsa". Tanulmányok II. József társuralkodói időszakáról, 1765-1780. Wien,, 2018
Szerkesztette FORGÓ ANDRÁS és KULCSÁR KRISZTINA publikationen der ungarischen geschichtsforschung... more Szerkesztette FORGÓ ANDRÁS és KULCSÁR KRISZTINA publikationen der ungarischen geschichtsforschung in wien bd. xvi. "DIE HABSBURGISCHE VARIANTE DES AUFGEKLÄRTEN ABSOLUTISMUS" BEITRÄGE ZUR MITREGENTSCHAFT JOSEPHS II., 1765-1780 publikationen der ungarischen geschichtsforschung in wien bd. xvi.
Aetas: Történettudományi Folyóirat, 2019
When aristocrats travel. Types of aristocratic travel in the 18th century:
the travels of Prince ... more When aristocrats travel. Types of aristocratic travel in the 18th century:
the travels of Prince Albert of Saxony-Teschen and Archduchess
Marie Christine
The 18th century was a golden age of travel. The number of people undertaking journeys increased significantly. This gave rise to new types of travel. This study presents old and new types of aristocratic travel with the help of three examples. These three were the journeys of Prince Albert of Saxony-Teschen and his wife, Archduchess Marie Christine. The destinations and dates in question are: Kingdom of Hungary (1766), Italy (1775–1776) and Paris/France (1786). These are compared to other types of travel. All three journeys are atypical in the sense that an aristocratic couple traveled rather than a single person, or a male aristocrat with his female companion. During these journeys the high status of Marie Christine as daughter of Empress Maria Theresa, was significant. The couple’s first shared trip was a representative court visit. It was Prince Albert’s first journey to the Kingdom of Hungary as lieutenant-governor. His official role notwithstanding the Hungarian nobility accorded higher status in the proceedings to the Archduchess. Their journeys to Italy and France, however, were not official visits. Besides calling on family members, their goals were learning and self-improvement. These travels were informal. The couple consciously avoided lavish receptions and formal social events. In accordance with the new fashion of ‘improvement’ tours (Reformstudienreise), they familiarized themselves with economic and social institutions, visited churches, galleries and art collections. They avoided any official ceremonial responsibilities during their stay in Paris, traveling ‘in incognito’ as the lord and lady of Béllye. They did this probably in order to avoid possible conflicts of interest. Their incognito enabled them to have a private, unofficial meeting with the Archduchess’s sister, Marie Antoinette. The novelty of these journeys lies in the fact that they are unique examples of the travels of a married couple in the 18th century.
Századok, 2019
The duties and political elbow-room of an eighteenth-century lieutenant-governor: The case of Alb... more The duties and political elbow-room of an eighteenth-century lieutenant-governor: The case of Albert Casimir of Saxony, Duke of Teschen
It was as lieutenant-governor of the Hungarian Kingdom (1765–1780) that Prince Albert Casimir of Saxony, Duke of Teschen, son-in-law of Maria Theresa, became worthy of obtaining the hand of Archduchess Maria Christina, Duchess of Teschen. In his person, a loyal and
trustworthy individual presided at the Hungarian Royal Lieutenancy Council and the Septemviral Table (Court of Appeal). The lieutenant-governor's authority was limited in relation to that of the palatine, the
right of donation having been retained by the ruler. The paper explores the kinds of cases that Albert commented on, and the ways in which he did so, and also the preferential treatment he received: he could select his own officials, could decide by himself on their remuneration, and he was not rebuked even in the case of administrative mistakes. His rank as captain-general was unique: he became commander-in-chief of all military units in the Kingdom of Hungary, but without any practical right of command. The functioning of Albert (and his predecessor Francis Stephen of Lotharingia) as lieutenant-governors related to the imperial-royal family constituted a kind of transition from the palatines elected from the Hungarian estates to the palatines who were Habsburg archdukes.
In: MÓRICZ PÉTER (szerk.): Batthyány Lajos nádor. Körmend, 2017
Das Amt des Palatins und alles, was damit verbunden ist. Die Amtsaufgaben von Lajos Batthyány als... more Das Amt des Palatins und alles, was damit verbunden ist. Die Amtsaufgaben von Lajos Batthyány als Palatin
Der im Jahre 1751 zum Palatin gewählte Graf Lajos Batthyány war der letzte aus einem ungarischen Adelsgeschlecht stammender Palatin. Zu dieser Amtswürde gehörten zahlreiche Aufgaben im 18. Jahrhundert: die Präsidentschaft des Königlich-Ungarischen Statthaltereirates und der Septemviraltafel, das Amt des Oberrichters der Jazygern und Kumanen, Obergespan des Komitats Pest-Pilis-Solt. Hinsichtlich der Rechte und Pflichten des Palatins kann man sagen, dass die Palatinwürde nicht nur ein bloßer Titel war, sondern sie bedeutete auch ernsthafte Aufgaben und der Palatin besaß eine einflussreiche Position zwischen des Monarchen und den Ständen.
Palatineship, and what comes with it. The office tasks of Lajos Batthyány
Lajos Batthyány, the last Hungarian nobleman to hold the office of palatine was elected to this post in 1751. In the eighteenth century, ex officio the palatine was among others the Chairman of the Royal Hungarian Locotenential Council, of the Supreme Court of Justice (Septemvirate Court of Appeal), Chief Juror of the Jazygians and Cumans and honorary High Sheriff of Pest-Pilis-Solt County. Considering this, we can state that the palatineship was not a simple
title – it constituted a position involving several important tasks that allowed the office holder to wield considerable infl uence both on the ruler and the Hungarian Estates.
Bulletin du Centre de recherche du château de Versailles [En ligne], Articles et études, mis en ligne le 19 octobre 2016, consulté le 15 décembre 2016., 2016
This paper explores the way the strict Viennese court ceremony was altered and simplified in the ... more This paper explores the way the strict Viennese court ceremony was altered and simplified in the 1750s and 1760s during the visits of Saxon-Polish princes, who were related to the imperial family but were landless and not crown princes. It depicts in detail this lesserknown type of visit, called " da parente " along with the changes in the audience, the " Re-Visite " , the problems related to the accommodation and catering for the visitors as well as their participation in court leisure events, using ceremonial protocols and ceremony records, envoys' reports, and the correspondence and diaries of the princes, held in archives in Budapest, Dresden and Vienna. By comparing these sources and the published ceremony handbooks, this study highlights the differences between established court ceremony and this special kind of informal visit. It is demonstrable that the " da parente " type of visit was not applied as a standard or a norm in the court of Vienna, but invoked only in exceptional cases, with visitors who were related to the imperial family.
Cet article s'intéresse à la manière dont le cérémonial à la cour de Vienne fut modifié et simplifié dans les années 1750 et 1760 lors des visites des princes de Saxe, qui étaient liés à la famille impériale mais ne possédaient pas de terres et n'étaient pas des princes héritiers. Il décrit en détail ce type de visite moins connu appelé « da parente », les changements apportés à l'audience, la " Revisite " (Gegen-Visite), la question du logement et des repas offerts aux visiteurs, ainsi que leur participation aux loisirs et festivités organisés par la cour en s’appuyant sur les protocoles et les registres de cérémonies, les rapports d’envoyés et sur la correspondance et les journaux des princes conservés dans les archives de Budapest, Dresde et Vienne. En comparant ces sources et les livres de cérémonies publiés, cette étude révèle les différences entre le cérémonial de cour établi et ce type particulier de visite informelle. Il est démontré que la visite „da parente” n’a pas été standardisée ni normalisée à la cour de Vienne, sauf dans des cas exceptionnels où les visiteurs avaient des liens de parenté avec la famille impériale.
In: VONYÓ JÓZSEF (szerk.): Személyiség és történelem. A történelmi személyiség. A történeti életrajz módszertani kérdései. Budapest-Pécs, 2017
In: Maria Leskinen, Olga Khavanova (ed.), Romanovyi v doroge. Puteshestviya i poezdki chlenov tsarskoy semi po Rossii i za granitsu Moscow,-St. Petersburg., 2016
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Papers by Kulcsár Krisztina
during the first years of Prince Albert of Saxony, Duke of Teschen, lieutenantgovernor
of Hungary
Based on archival material from the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery Archive in
Budapest, this study examines the extent to which the selection and advancement of
officials were influenced by Prince Albert of Saxony (who became Duke of Saxe-Teschen in 1766). He was appointed by Maria Theresa, his future mother-in-law, as the lieutenantgovernor of the Kingdom of Hungary in late December 1765. From the official papers, it is possible to ascertain the reasons given for changes in personnel in the Hungarian Royal Lieutenancy Council, the primary government body (of which the Prince was the president) responsible for domestic policy in Hungary. The period under consideration is between 1765 and 1771. Th e influence of Prince Albert, an outsider in Hungary, was hardly discernable in the early four years. Appointments were invariably decided by the sovereign, Queen Maria Theresa. During this time, Prince Albert’s role was mostly limited to proposing individuals for non-salaried, so-called supernumerary posts or honorary councillorships. However, following the introduction of a new, more professonalised administration in 1769, the Hungarian Royal Lieutenancy Council required more experienced and qualified staff. Consequently, Prince Albert had the opportunity to advance his trusted officials who had proven their administrative efficiency. He achieved the promotion of talented secretaries to the rank of councillor, for example, even if it occasially involved unorthodox methods. The sources also show that low-paid, lowerranking officials received a pay increase, and from 1776, a special bonus. Hence, the files of the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery clearly demonstrate that Prince Albert had an influential role in proposing candidates for administrative offices.
Ein Jahr später wurden grundlegende personale Veränderungen in Siebenbürgens Ämtern durchgeführt. Anhand eines Vergleichs der Aussagen der Liste und der entlassenen bzw. beförderten Beamten kann festgestellt werden. daß der persönliche Kontakt, und der Eindruck Josephs II. ausschlaggebend für diese Veränderungen war. Die unfähigen, faulen, nationalen oder religiösen Voreingenommenheiten verfallenen Beamten wurden jubiliert, die talentierten und fleißigen auf neue Posten gesetzt. Mit Hilfe von Akten und Beamtenlisten kann bewiesen werden, daß auch in den späteren Zäsurjahren (1777: Ernennung Samuel Bruckenthals zum Gubernator; 1784: Errichtung der elf neuen Komitate; 1786: Errichtung der drei Distrikte) die schon 1773 kennengelernten, von Kaiser gelobten und geschätzten Staatsbeamten befördert wurden, um die Schlüsselpositionen des Großfürstentums zu besetzen.
Joseph II embarked on his journey in Transylvania (and Galicia) between the 6th of May and the 13th of September 1773 in order to familiarize himself with the two provinces of the Habsburg Monarchy. In order to lessen the financial burden of his visits on his subjects, the emperor neglected the protocols of the ceremonial court travellings, and opted for a simpler, thus more cost-efficient way of organizing it. ‘Incognito’ in his perception did not mean travelling in secret under a false identity, rather a particular way of organizing and undertaking his journey. His primary aim was to avoid the prescribed ceremonial elements of a court travel, its suffocating etiquette, social obligations and festivities. He travelled by a simple and not an elegantly decorated coach or by horse, and was accompanied by a small number of hand-picked confidants. Several authorities were implicated in the organizing process. The Transylvanian Court Chancellery forwarded the decrees of the Emperor and the planned route to the Transylvanian Gubernium, which instructed the Transylvanian counties, seats and districts of their duties. They had to provide provisions for relays and for accommodating quarters, and to perform only the necessary maintenance works of the roads and bridges. The local military authorities were informed, too, by the Imperial War Council. In Transylvania the Transylvanian General Commando of Sibiu (Nagyszeben) was in charge of the preparations, and the military troops had the duty to supply the travelers with saddles, horses, and military escort.
Being a co-sovereign charged with the military problems of the Empire, Joseph II was interested in particular in inspecting the fortifications and the military troops of the Grand Principality. He also had the chance to gather personal impressions on the appointed bureaucrats and on the functioning of the whole administrative network of Transylvania. During his audiences and other informal conversations, he took thorough, often ironical notes on the professional knowledge, abilities and efficiency of the office-holders, and their personal opinion on various subjects. These personal notes show the young Joseph’ proficiency in evaluating the personalities of his subordinates. As a consequence of his visit, in the next year important changes were made in the administration of Transylvania: the activity of certain offices was reorganized, and several leading officials were dismissed, reassigned or new ones were commissioned. Our sources clearly indicate that the newly assigned officials were those who made a good impression on Joseph II during his journey, and they were to become the new leading officials of the 1770s and 1780s (or even after these decades) in Transylvania.
On the southern and western frontiers of the Habsburg Monarchy the construction of a quarantine-line began after the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, and it was completed in the 1760s and 1770s. The regulations of the quarantine, the duties of the personnel were determined according to unitary principles by the Healthcare Normative (Generale normativum in re sanitatis) of 1770. It listed in the Kingdom of Hungary and Croatia eight, in the Banat of Temeswar four, and in the Grand Principality of Transylvania and at the mountain passes nine entry point to the
country. On the northern border nine quarantine stations were built, which performed not only sanitary, but also defence duties, in the fear of a Russian or Prussian invasion, but only after 1770. Those who entered to the country from abroad had to spend 21, during pandemic period 42 days in the quarantine stations, which were built according to the strict precautionary regulations. The personnel of the quarantine station disinfected the livestock, goods and other cargo with washing, ventilation and sometimes fumigation.
The epidemic control within the country can be known in particular from the measures against the plague of 1738 and 1743. The general central provision did not exist at the time and the local defensive instructions were different. However, the main goal was to block the infected and to restrict the free movement of the possibly infected people, so the large gatherings (such as fairs, masses and funerals) were banned. Those, who violated these instructions, could be sentenced to death. Houses and movables were disinfected with sulphur, slack lime and vinegar,
and fumigation was used often too. Travelling inside the country was only possible with a special document, which proved that the holder came from an uninfected area, or spent the necessary quarantine period. Until the invention of the appropriate vaccination, the containment, surveillance, distancing and disinfection were used as methods to curb infectious epidemics.
the travels of Prince Albert of Saxony-Teschen and Archduchess
Marie Christine
The 18th century was a golden age of travel. The number of people undertaking journeys increased significantly. This gave rise to new types of travel. This study presents old and new types of aristocratic travel with the help of three examples. These three were the journeys of Prince Albert of Saxony-Teschen and his wife, Archduchess Marie Christine. The destinations and dates in question are: Kingdom of Hungary (1766), Italy (1775–1776) and Paris/France (1786). These are compared to other types of travel. All three journeys are atypical in the sense that an aristocratic couple traveled rather than a single person, or a male aristocrat with his female companion. During these journeys the high status of Marie Christine as daughter of Empress Maria Theresa, was significant. The couple’s first shared trip was a representative court visit. It was Prince Albert’s first journey to the Kingdom of Hungary as lieutenant-governor. His official role notwithstanding the Hungarian nobility accorded higher status in the proceedings to the Archduchess. Their journeys to Italy and France, however, were not official visits. Besides calling on family members, their goals were learning and self-improvement. These travels were informal. The couple consciously avoided lavish receptions and formal social events. In accordance with the new fashion of ‘improvement’ tours (Reformstudienreise), they familiarized themselves with economic and social institutions, visited churches, galleries and art collections. They avoided any official ceremonial responsibilities during their stay in Paris, traveling ‘in incognito’ as the lord and lady of Béllye. They did this probably in order to avoid possible conflicts of interest. Their incognito enabled them to have a private, unofficial meeting with the Archduchess’s sister, Marie Antoinette. The novelty of these journeys lies in the fact that they are unique examples of the travels of a married couple in the 18th century.
It was as lieutenant-governor of the Hungarian Kingdom (1765–1780) that Prince Albert Casimir of Saxony, Duke of Teschen, son-in-law of Maria Theresa, became worthy of obtaining the hand of Archduchess Maria Christina, Duchess of Teschen. In his person, a loyal and
trustworthy individual presided at the Hungarian Royal Lieutenancy Council and the Septemviral Table (Court of Appeal). The lieutenant-governor's authority was limited in relation to that of the palatine, the
right of donation having been retained by the ruler. The paper explores the kinds of cases that Albert commented on, and the ways in which he did so, and also the preferential treatment he received: he could select his own officials, could decide by himself on their remuneration, and he was not rebuked even in the case of administrative mistakes. His rank as captain-general was unique: he became commander-in-chief of all military units in the Kingdom of Hungary, but without any practical right of command. The functioning of Albert (and his predecessor Francis Stephen of Lotharingia) as lieutenant-governors related to the imperial-royal family constituted a kind of transition from the palatines elected from the Hungarian estates to the palatines who were Habsburg archdukes.
Der im Jahre 1751 zum Palatin gewählte Graf Lajos Batthyány war der letzte aus einem ungarischen Adelsgeschlecht stammender Palatin. Zu dieser Amtswürde gehörten zahlreiche Aufgaben im 18. Jahrhundert: die Präsidentschaft des Königlich-Ungarischen Statthaltereirates und der Septemviraltafel, das Amt des Oberrichters der Jazygern und Kumanen, Obergespan des Komitats Pest-Pilis-Solt. Hinsichtlich der Rechte und Pflichten des Palatins kann man sagen, dass die Palatinwürde nicht nur ein bloßer Titel war, sondern sie bedeutete auch ernsthafte Aufgaben und der Palatin besaß eine einflussreiche Position zwischen des Monarchen und den Ständen.
Palatineship, and what comes with it. The office tasks of Lajos Batthyány
Lajos Batthyány, the last Hungarian nobleman to hold the office of palatine was elected to this post in 1751. In the eighteenth century, ex officio the palatine was among others the Chairman of the Royal Hungarian Locotenential Council, of the Supreme Court of Justice (Septemvirate Court of Appeal), Chief Juror of the Jazygians and Cumans and honorary High Sheriff of Pest-Pilis-Solt County. Considering this, we can state that the palatineship was not a simple
title – it constituted a position involving several important tasks that allowed the office holder to wield considerable infl uence both on the ruler and the Hungarian Estates.
Cet article s'intéresse à la manière dont le cérémonial à la cour de Vienne fut modifié et simplifié dans les années 1750 et 1760 lors des visites des princes de Saxe, qui étaient liés à la famille impériale mais ne possédaient pas de terres et n'étaient pas des princes héritiers. Il décrit en détail ce type de visite moins connu appelé « da parente », les changements apportés à l'audience, la " Revisite " (Gegen-Visite), la question du logement et des repas offerts aux visiteurs, ainsi que leur participation aux loisirs et festivités organisés par la cour en s’appuyant sur les protocoles et les registres de cérémonies, les rapports d’envoyés et sur la correspondance et les journaux des princes conservés dans les archives de Budapest, Dresde et Vienne. En comparant ces sources et les livres de cérémonies publiés, cette étude révèle les différences entre le cérémonial de cour établi et ce type particulier de visite informelle. Il est démontré que la visite „da parente” n’a pas été standardisée ni normalisée à la cour de Vienne, sauf dans des cas exceptionnels où les visiteurs avaient des liens de parenté avec la famille impériale.
during the first years of Prince Albert of Saxony, Duke of Teschen, lieutenantgovernor
of Hungary
Based on archival material from the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery Archive in
Budapest, this study examines the extent to which the selection and advancement of
officials were influenced by Prince Albert of Saxony (who became Duke of Saxe-Teschen in 1766). He was appointed by Maria Theresa, his future mother-in-law, as the lieutenantgovernor of the Kingdom of Hungary in late December 1765. From the official papers, it is possible to ascertain the reasons given for changes in personnel in the Hungarian Royal Lieutenancy Council, the primary government body (of which the Prince was the president) responsible for domestic policy in Hungary. The period under consideration is between 1765 and 1771. Th e influence of Prince Albert, an outsider in Hungary, was hardly discernable in the early four years. Appointments were invariably decided by the sovereign, Queen Maria Theresa. During this time, Prince Albert’s role was mostly limited to proposing individuals for non-salaried, so-called supernumerary posts or honorary councillorships. However, following the introduction of a new, more professonalised administration in 1769, the Hungarian Royal Lieutenancy Council required more experienced and qualified staff. Consequently, Prince Albert had the opportunity to advance his trusted officials who had proven their administrative efficiency. He achieved the promotion of talented secretaries to the rank of councillor, for example, even if it occasially involved unorthodox methods. The sources also show that low-paid, lowerranking officials received a pay increase, and from 1776, a special bonus. Hence, the files of the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery clearly demonstrate that Prince Albert had an influential role in proposing candidates for administrative offices.
Ein Jahr später wurden grundlegende personale Veränderungen in Siebenbürgens Ämtern durchgeführt. Anhand eines Vergleichs der Aussagen der Liste und der entlassenen bzw. beförderten Beamten kann festgestellt werden. daß der persönliche Kontakt, und der Eindruck Josephs II. ausschlaggebend für diese Veränderungen war. Die unfähigen, faulen, nationalen oder religiösen Voreingenommenheiten verfallenen Beamten wurden jubiliert, die talentierten und fleißigen auf neue Posten gesetzt. Mit Hilfe von Akten und Beamtenlisten kann bewiesen werden, daß auch in den späteren Zäsurjahren (1777: Ernennung Samuel Bruckenthals zum Gubernator; 1784: Errichtung der elf neuen Komitate; 1786: Errichtung der drei Distrikte) die schon 1773 kennengelernten, von Kaiser gelobten und geschätzten Staatsbeamten befördert wurden, um die Schlüsselpositionen des Großfürstentums zu besetzen.
Joseph II embarked on his journey in Transylvania (and Galicia) between the 6th of May and the 13th of September 1773 in order to familiarize himself with the two provinces of the Habsburg Monarchy. In order to lessen the financial burden of his visits on his subjects, the emperor neglected the protocols of the ceremonial court travellings, and opted for a simpler, thus more cost-efficient way of organizing it. ‘Incognito’ in his perception did not mean travelling in secret under a false identity, rather a particular way of organizing and undertaking his journey. His primary aim was to avoid the prescribed ceremonial elements of a court travel, its suffocating etiquette, social obligations and festivities. He travelled by a simple and not an elegantly decorated coach or by horse, and was accompanied by a small number of hand-picked confidants. Several authorities were implicated in the organizing process. The Transylvanian Court Chancellery forwarded the decrees of the Emperor and the planned route to the Transylvanian Gubernium, which instructed the Transylvanian counties, seats and districts of their duties. They had to provide provisions for relays and for accommodating quarters, and to perform only the necessary maintenance works of the roads and bridges. The local military authorities were informed, too, by the Imperial War Council. In Transylvania the Transylvanian General Commando of Sibiu (Nagyszeben) was in charge of the preparations, and the military troops had the duty to supply the travelers with saddles, horses, and military escort.
Being a co-sovereign charged with the military problems of the Empire, Joseph II was interested in particular in inspecting the fortifications and the military troops of the Grand Principality. He also had the chance to gather personal impressions on the appointed bureaucrats and on the functioning of the whole administrative network of Transylvania. During his audiences and other informal conversations, he took thorough, often ironical notes on the professional knowledge, abilities and efficiency of the office-holders, and their personal opinion on various subjects. These personal notes show the young Joseph’ proficiency in evaluating the personalities of his subordinates. As a consequence of his visit, in the next year important changes were made in the administration of Transylvania: the activity of certain offices was reorganized, and several leading officials were dismissed, reassigned or new ones were commissioned. Our sources clearly indicate that the newly assigned officials were those who made a good impression on Joseph II during his journey, and they were to become the new leading officials of the 1770s and 1780s (or even after these decades) in Transylvania.
On the southern and western frontiers of the Habsburg Monarchy the construction of a quarantine-line began after the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, and it was completed in the 1760s and 1770s. The regulations of the quarantine, the duties of the personnel were determined according to unitary principles by the Healthcare Normative (Generale normativum in re sanitatis) of 1770. It listed in the Kingdom of Hungary and Croatia eight, in the Banat of Temeswar four, and in the Grand Principality of Transylvania and at the mountain passes nine entry point to the
country. On the northern border nine quarantine stations were built, which performed not only sanitary, but also defence duties, in the fear of a Russian or Prussian invasion, but only after 1770. Those who entered to the country from abroad had to spend 21, during pandemic period 42 days in the quarantine stations, which were built according to the strict precautionary regulations. The personnel of the quarantine station disinfected the livestock, goods and other cargo with washing, ventilation and sometimes fumigation.
The epidemic control within the country can be known in particular from the measures against the plague of 1738 and 1743. The general central provision did not exist at the time and the local defensive instructions were different. However, the main goal was to block the infected and to restrict the free movement of the possibly infected people, so the large gatherings (such as fairs, masses and funerals) were banned. Those, who violated these instructions, could be sentenced to death. Houses and movables were disinfected with sulphur, slack lime and vinegar,
and fumigation was used often too. Travelling inside the country was only possible with a special document, which proved that the holder came from an uninfected area, or spent the necessary quarantine period. Until the invention of the appropriate vaccination, the containment, surveillance, distancing and disinfection were used as methods to curb infectious epidemics.
the travels of Prince Albert of Saxony-Teschen and Archduchess
Marie Christine
The 18th century was a golden age of travel. The number of people undertaking journeys increased significantly. This gave rise to new types of travel. This study presents old and new types of aristocratic travel with the help of three examples. These three were the journeys of Prince Albert of Saxony-Teschen and his wife, Archduchess Marie Christine. The destinations and dates in question are: Kingdom of Hungary (1766), Italy (1775–1776) and Paris/France (1786). These are compared to other types of travel. All three journeys are atypical in the sense that an aristocratic couple traveled rather than a single person, or a male aristocrat with his female companion. During these journeys the high status of Marie Christine as daughter of Empress Maria Theresa, was significant. The couple’s first shared trip was a representative court visit. It was Prince Albert’s first journey to the Kingdom of Hungary as lieutenant-governor. His official role notwithstanding the Hungarian nobility accorded higher status in the proceedings to the Archduchess. Their journeys to Italy and France, however, were not official visits. Besides calling on family members, their goals were learning and self-improvement. These travels were informal. The couple consciously avoided lavish receptions and formal social events. In accordance with the new fashion of ‘improvement’ tours (Reformstudienreise), they familiarized themselves with economic and social institutions, visited churches, galleries and art collections. They avoided any official ceremonial responsibilities during their stay in Paris, traveling ‘in incognito’ as the lord and lady of Béllye. They did this probably in order to avoid possible conflicts of interest. Their incognito enabled them to have a private, unofficial meeting with the Archduchess’s sister, Marie Antoinette. The novelty of these journeys lies in the fact that they are unique examples of the travels of a married couple in the 18th century.
It was as lieutenant-governor of the Hungarian Kingdom (1765–1780) that Prince Albert Casimir of Saxony, Duke of Teschen, son-in-law of Maria Theresa, became worthy of obtaining the hand of Archduchess Maria Christina, Duchess of Teschen. In his person, a loyal and
trustworthy individual presided at the Hungarian Royal Lieutenancy Council and the Septemviral Table (Court of Appeal). The lieutenant-governor's authority was limited in relation to that of the palatine, the
right of donation having been retained by the ruler. The paper explores the kinds of cases that Albert commented on, and the ways in which he did so, and also the preferential treatment he received: he could select his own officials, could decide by himself on their remuneration, and he was not rebuked even in the case of administrative mistakes. His rank as captain-general was unique: he became commander-in-chief of all military units in the Kingdom of Hungary, but without any practical right of command. The functioning of Albert (and his predecessor Francis Stephen of Lotharingia) as lieutenant-governors related to the imperial-royal family constituted a kind of transition from the palatines elected from the Hungarian estates to the palatines who were Habsburg archdukes.
Der im Jahre 1751 zum Palatin gewählte Graf Lajos Batthyány war der letzte aus einem ungarischen Adelsgeschlecht stammender Palatin. Zu dieser Amtswürde gehörten zahlreiche Aufgaben im 18. Jahrhundert: die Präsidentschaft des Königlich-Ungarischen Statthaltereirates und der Septemviraltafel, das Amt des Oberrichters der Jazygern und Kumanen, Obergespan des Komitats Pest-Pilis-Solt. Hinsichtlich der Rechte und Pflichten des Palatins kann man sagen, dass die Palatinwürde nicht nur ein bloßer Titel war, sondern sie bedeutete auch ernsthafte Aufgaben und der Palatin besaß eine einflussreiche Position zwischen des Monarchen und den Ständen.
Palatineship, and what comes with it. The office tasks of Lajos Batthyány
Lajos Batthyány, the last Hungarian nobleman to hold the office of palatine was elected to this post in 1751. In the eighteenth century, ex officio the palatine was among others the Chairman of the Royal Hungarian Locotenential Council, of the Supreme Court of Justice (Septemvirate Court of Appeal), Chief Juror of the Jazygians and Cumans and honorary High Sheriff of Pest-Pilis-Solt County. Considering this, we can state that the palatineship was not a simple
title – it constituted a position involving several important tasks that allowed the office holder to wield considerable infl uence both on the ruler and the Hungarian Estates.
Cet article s'intéresse à la manière dont le cérémonial à la cour de Vienne fut modifié et simplifié dans les années 1750 et 1760 lors des visites des princes de Saxe, qui étaient liés à la famille impériale mais ne possédaient pas de terres et n'étaient pas des princes héritiers. Il décrit en détail ce type de visite moins connu appelé « da parente », les changements apportés à l'audience, la " Revisite " (Gegen-Visite), la question du logement et des repas offerts aux visiteurs, ainsi que leur participation aux loisirs et festivités organisés par la cour en s’appuyant sur les protocoles et les registres de cérémonies, les rapports d’envoyés et sur la correspondance et les journaux des princes conservés dans les archives de Budapest, Dresde et Vienne. En comparant ces sources et les livres de cérémonies publiés, cette étude révèle les différences entre le cérémonial de cour établi et ce type particulier de visite informelle. Il est démontré que la visite „da parente” n’a pas été standardisée ni normalisée à la cour de Vienne, sauf dans des cas exceptionnels où les visiteurs avaient des liens de parenté avec la famille impériale.