Papers by Dr. Haezreena Begum Abdul Hamid
Routledge eBooks, Jun 19, 2024
Routledge eBooks, Jun 19, 2024
Current Law Journal, 2024
This article explores the autonomy of people with mental disorders and seeks to analyse the pract... more This article explores the autonomy of people with mental disorders and seeks to analyse the practice of informed consent and practices of forced detention and treatment in Malaysia. The article argues that there are different standards of autonomy given to patients with physical illness and mentally challenged patients which is tantamount to double standards and injustice. In this regard, the article will delve into the need for informed consent and its significant implications when considerations of autonomy are waived.
Anti trafficking review, Apr 19, 2022
This article addresses the knowledge gap surrounding human traffickers in Malaysia. Based on qual... more This article addresses the knowledge gap surrounding human traffickers in Malaysia. Based on qualitative interviews with women identified as victims of trafficking, it explores the women's perception of their traffickers and their migration experience. The article asserts that the term 'trafficker' is complex and misunderstood by scholars, states, and state officials; and that trafficked persons may not necessarily detest their traffickers or even regard them as having caused them harm. Instead, traffickers are sometimes considered 'helpers' or people who provide work opportunities and a prospect of a better life. However, this form of relationship is considered exploitative by Malaysian legislation.
Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, Apr 10, 2022
The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly disrupted people's lives, economic status, and daily rout... more The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly disrupted people's lives, economic status, and daily routine. The extensive scale of the virus has caused fear, confusion and panic throughout the globe spurring states to devise stringent procedures to manage the crisis. In Malaysia, A Movement Control Order (MCO) was implemented on 18 March 2020 as a preventive measure to control the spread of the virus. To enforce such restrictions, the government relies heavily on law enforcers, and the criminal justice system to ensure public safety and security. In light of such restrictive measures, those who are severely impacted by such repressive rules are the marginalized communities. This includes trafficked persons, migrants, refugees, and asylum seekers as law enforcers seek to use the pandemic to further control their movements and restrict their rights wherever possible. In this instance, xenophobia, antiimmigrant prejudice, intolerance, social exclusion, and discrimination exacerbates the vulnerability of migrants particularly undocumented migrants and trafficked victims. According to human rights activists, these groups are exposed to regular insults, verbal abuse, threat, public shaming and blame by citizens, employers, politicians, and enforcement agencies. Therefore, this article highlights two main points. They are: xenophobia between the dominant populations and the migrant community in Malaysia; state's policing of migrants and the conditions of the detention centres and shelters in Malaysia. The article concludes by arguing that the policing and 'protection' of migrants during the pandemic have resulted in irreparable harm, mistrust, and stress among the migrants which undermines the positive development outcomes of migration. Contribution/Originality: This study contributes to the existing literature on migrant policing in times of the pandemic. The study documents the human rights concerns posed by the coronavirus outbreak by drawing on examples of the Malaysian government responses towards the xenophobic attitudes of the society and the conditions of the detention and shelters in Malaysia.
Geografia, Aug 22, 2019
This article builds on the agency theory and provides an analysis on how silence has been used as... more This article builds on the agency theory and provides an analysis on how silence has been used as a tool to control trafficked women. The article argues that in many instances, traffickers and state institutions control women by dismissing their voice, or by depriving them from exercising their agency. In this respect, women who are vocal and verbalise their opinions are categorised as defiant and need to be controlled. Such beliefs stem from patriarchal influences that have been normalised and are deeply embedded in social structures, cultures, religions and social practices. To affirm these claims, the study conducted semi-structured interviews with 29 trafficked female migrants from seven different nationalities who were detained in a shelter in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The study also interviewed 12 professionals that mainly consist of government officials to understand the implementation of the victim-protection policies. By providing an insight into women's experiences of sex-trafficking and state 'protection', the article discusses how the victim protection policies act to silence women by force. The findings of the study will demonstrate how silencing is used as a strategy to minimise harm and how women are silenced through language barriers. This article adds knowledge to the trafficking and victimization scholarship and expands the notion of silencing so that it can be more understandable and effective across cultures.
Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, Nov 10, 2021
This article explores the relationship between patriarchy and victim blaming in cases of rape and... more This article explores the relationship between patriarchy and victim blaming in cases of rape and sexual violence. It explores how women’s dependence on, and subordination to men has been used to blame victims in cases of rape and sexual assault. The article will examine how patriarchal norms that are deeply entrenched in existing laws, traditions, religion, and social practices have been used to blame women in cases of rape. It will also explore how victim blaming attitudes have and continue to be used as a tool to absolve the perpetrator from their crimes. Using discourse analysis to examine the existing literature, the article will highlight how sexual violence are sometimes minimised and trivialised in courts and media. As well as this, the study adopts a feminist lens and critiques the imbalance of power that exist between men and women. The article will highlight how patriarchal norms have been institutionalised in all layers of social structures and contest how female victims of sexual violence are sometimes ridiculed and devalued in court. Within this finding, the construction of women’s sexuality and the limited criminal justice protection will be discussed in depth. The article concludes by arguing that patriarchal norms can be destructive and obstructive in achieving fairness and justice for victims of rape and sexual violence. Therefore, immediate steps must be taken to address victim-blaming attitudes by propagating more gender equality practices and instilling such practices in all levels of society and state institutions.
Anti-Trafficking Review
Shelters are the most common form of assistance available to trafficked persons in Malaysia and o... more Shelters are the most common form of assistance available to trafficked persons in Malaysia and other countries. They may offer a safe and protected environment in which they can begin their recovery and access services such as legal, medical, or psychosocial aid. However, the rules imposed in the shelters and the overall victim protection mechanisms in Malaysia have been heavily criticised for violating human rights principles. This is because ‘rescued’ victims are forcibly detained in shelters until they are repatriated, which may take months or even a year. This article considers the conditions of victims’ detention from a socio-legal perspective. Drawing upon interviews with 29 trafficked women and 12 professionals from a shelter in Kuala Lumpur, it explores the women’s living conditions and access to legal support and mental and physical healthcare within the facility. The article concludes that routine detention of trafficked persons in shelters violates fundamental principles...
Asian Yearbook of International Law, Volume 23 (2017), 2019
DILA was established in 1989, at a time when its prime movers believed that economic and politica... more DILA was established in 1989, at a time when its prime movers believed that economic and political developments in Asia had reached the stage at which they would welcome and benefit substantially from a mechanism to promote and facilitate exchanges among their international law scholars that had failed to develop during the colonial era. The Foundation was established to promote: (a) the study of and analysis of topics and issues in the field of international law, in particular from an Asian perspective; (b) the study of and dissemination of knowledge of international law in Asia; and (c) contacts and cooperation between persons and institutions actively dealing with questions of international law relating to Asia. The Foundation is concerned with reporting and analyzing developments in the field of international law relating to the region, and not primarily with efforts to distinguish particular attitudes, policies or practices as predominately or essentially "Asian". If they are shown to exist, it would be an interesting by-product of the Foundation's essential function, which is to bring about an exchange of views in the expectation that the process would reveal areas of common interest and concern among the states of Asia, and even more importantly, demonstrate that those areas of interest and concern are, in fact, shared by the international community as a whole. xiii Editorial Note Center, and Maria Pia Benosa, Professorial Lecturer at the UP College of Law, report on salient international legal matters affecting the Philippines. They begin with a look at the conclusion of treaties and other international agreements within the context of the "Three Pillars of Philippine Foreign Policy" which are the preservation and enhancement of national security, promotion and attainment of economic security, and the protection of the rights and promotion of the welfare of overseas Filipinos. Next, they discuss the involvement of the Philippines in international litigation and adjudication; the matter of statehood, jurisdiction of states, and organs of states in reference to the Bangsamoro Organic Law which created the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region; and briefly examine matters pertaining to international environmental law. This follows with a discussion of important human rights matters in the Philippines as they pay particular attention to extrajudicial killings and summary executions; threats to freedom of speech; non-violent discipline of children; and the state of jails in the Philippines. Then, attention is given to international criminal law and the issues arising out of the Philippine withdrawal from the International Criminal Court. Following, they discuss the international cooperation of the Philippines with particular reference to mutual legal assistance treaties and the prevention of pandemic influenza and other dangerous communicable disease. Lastly, they focus their attention to significant law of the sea matters including the South China Sea arbitration (Philippines v. China) under Annex vii of the unclos along with the successful claim to an extended continental shelf in the Benham Rise region; the maritime boundary delimitation with Indonesia; and proposed legislation on maritime affairs. Next, Kuan-Hsiung Wang, Professor of the Graduate Institute of Political Science, National Taiwan Normal University, gives his report on current international legal issues facing Taiwan. He begins by noting that Taiwan's international legal status has been an issue since 1949 and that despite the difficulties with its international legal status given the presence of the Peoples' Republic of China, it has official diplomatic relations with a number of countries as well as close economic relations with most members of the international community. He then looks to the issue Taiwan faces in relation to concluding international treaties and participating in international organizations. He observes that under the circumstances of the non-recognition of Taiwan, it is difficult for it to conclude agreements with other states. However, he notes that Taiwan is still able to accede to certain agreements for functional purposes. Lastly, he addresses Taiwan's law of the sea matters and in particular, its maritime claims and fishery disputes in both the East China Sea and South China Sea. Kitti Jayangakula, Professor of Law of Eastern Asia University School of Law, follows with his description of Thailand's interaction with international law xvi Editorial Note IV Literature Bibliographic Survey Christine Sim, of the Board of Editors and of Herbert Smith Freehills, has prepared the bibliography for 2017 which provides information on books, articles, notes, and other materials dealing with international law in Asia. © Muhammad Ekramul Haque, ���9 | doi:�0.��63/97890044�58�9_00� This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC 4.0 License.
Anti-Trafficking Review, 2023
Shelters are the most common form of assistance available to trafficked persons in Malaysia and o... more Shelters are the most common form of assistance available to trafficked persons in Malaysia and other countries. They may offer a safe and protected environment in which they can begin their recovery and access services such as legal, medical, or psychosocial aid. However, the rules imposed in the shelters and the overall victim protection mechanisms in Malaysia have been heavily criticised for violating human rights principles. This is because 'rescued' victims are forcibly detained in shelters until they are repatriated, which may take months or even a year. This article considers the conditions of victims' detention from a sociolegal perspective. Drawing upon interviews with 29 trafficked women and 12 professionals from a shelter in Kuala Lumpur, it explores the women's living conditions and access to legal support and mental and physical healthcare within the facility. The article concludes that routine detention of trafficked persons in shelters violates fundamental principles of international law and is therefore to be considered unlawful.
Malayan Law Journal, 2023
Diplomatic law has continuously developed since ancient times and has become a unique part of pub... more Diplomatic law has continuously developed since ancient times and has become a unique part of public international law. 1 The cornerstone of diplomatic privilege and immunities is dominated by the principle of inviolability. Inviolability guarantees the sanctity of diplomatic and consular premises. Whilst it does not place premises above the law, anybody who remains on diplomatic or consular premises can take refuge from the law. Thus, personal inviolability of diplomatic agents is often considered to be at the root of diplomatic immunity. The need for the rule of inviolability is so important in the concept of diplomatic relations without which there would be chaos in the relationship between states. However, the principle of inviolability has sometimes led to a breakdown in the rule of law when it is used as a tool to evade prosecution in order to attain diplomatic impunity. This article will highlight some of the abuses and violations of the principle of inviolability perpetrated by diplomatic agents. This article will also discuss the response of states in dealing with the principle of inviolability as contained in Articles 22 and 29 of the Vienna Convention of Diplomatic Relations 1961 ('Vienna Convention'), 2 and explore how states respond to situations where their diplomats themselves have become a danger or a threat the general public or to a particular individual.
UUM Journal of Legal Studies
This article explores the notion of consent inthe trafficking paradigm and the conflation of volu... more This article explores the notion of consent inthe trafficking paradigm and the conflation of voluntary sex work and sex trafficking in Malaysia. The article argues that because consent of a trafficked victim is irrelevant inthe context of international law, the authorities tend to conflate voluntary sex work with trafficked sex work. This obstructs a clear definition of trafficking and places women in precarious positions. The article also aims to evaluate the approaches in protecting victims through raids and rescue operations, shelter detention, andjudicial processes in the respective states in the country. The article will demonstrate that while women areuniquely positioned to be a part of the fight against sex trafficking through their access to information, their consent to be pa.rt of the process in tackling sex trafficking has been ignored, negated, and disregarded throughout the anti-trafficking regime. Such practices are seen as violating women' s fundamental rights and...
Asian Yearbook of International Law, Volume 26 (2020)
COVID-19 has brought to the forefront and exposed longstanding gender tensions and inequalities a... more COVID-19 has brought to the forefront and exposed longstanding gender tensions and inequalities as the world struggles to contain the spread of the novel Coronavirus. The extensive scale of the virus has caused fear, confusion, and panic throughout the globe spurring states to devise stringent procedures to manage the crisis. In Malaysia, A Movement Control Order (MCO) was implemented on 18 March 2020 as a preventive measure to control the spread of the virus. In light of such restrictive measures, reports on gender-based violence have increased rapidly in homes because women and girls are sheltering-in-place with their abusers. Part of this is due to reduced access to support systems, as lockdown and curfews confine victims to their homes, limit contact with persons outside their household, and postpone court hearings or counselling services on domestic issues. Additionally, women face struggles in detaching themselves from their partners and escaping abuse due to the uncertainty the pandemic brings. These are serious hindrances to the protection of women and girls in Malaysia. Despite such grievances faced by women and girls, the Malaysian government has yet to resolve a concrete policy action to tackle these issues. Although the general attitude towards the protection of women and children is shown by the ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), the lack of political will and reinforcement of patriarchal attitudes appears to be an obstacle in enabling the government to formulate a robust state mechanism to address gender-based violence. Therefore, this article argues that more gender-sensitive or gender-responsive policies must be formulated in order to protect the rights of the people equally.
The widespread use of deoxyribonucleic acid (‘DNA’) data to detect offenders and exonerate the in... more The widespread use of deoxyribonucleic acid (‘DNA’) data to detect offenders and exonerate the innocent have been applauded by law enforcers and the judiciary as a breakthrough in the science of criminal investigation. However, the use of DNA evidence in court and methods of collection have raised important legal, medical and ethical questions. Among the questions raised is if the provisions compelling suspects to give DNA samples violate their personal autonomy and privacy rights. Despite this, the Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Identification Act
2009 (‘DNA Act’) permits law enforcers to collect DNA samples from suspects, detainees, prisoners and drug users. Such practices demonstrate how the DNA Act is able to reconfigure the criminal justice system through methods that are capable of overriding a person’s autonomy and privacy rights. Therefore, this article aims
to examine three main areas. First, how the DNA Act provides an avenue for law enforcers to collect DNA through force. Second, how illegally obtained evidence can be admitted in court on the grounds of relevancy. Third, whether the weight and value of DNA evidence is sufficient to prove a case beyond reasonable doubt. The article will conclude by asserting two main points. First, that compelling certain individuals to give their DNA samples infringes a person’s right to privacy and autonomy. Second, that DNA samples can only estimate the probability that the
donor is the source of the sample but cannot confirm the person’s participation in a crime. Therefore, this article argues that DNA evidence alone cannot implicate a person beyond reasonable doubt in a criminal trial.
Malayan Law Journal, 2022
Cyberviolence affects women disproportionately not only causing them psychological harm and suffe... more Cyberviolence affects women disproportionately not only causing them psychological harm and suffering but also deterring them from digital participation in political, social, and cultural life. Cyberviolence can take many forms, including (sexual) harassment, revenge porn and threats of rape, sexual assault, or murder. Concretely, forms of cyberviolence include violation of privacy, such as sharing, manipulating data or images, including intimate ones, stalking, doxing, and also cyber harassment, including smear campaigns, cyberbullying, and online sexual harassment. Perpetrators can be partners or ex-partners, colleagues, schoolmates, or anonymous individuals. However, cyberviolence is often misunderstood, downplayed, or not taken as seriously as it should be. This is partly due to the lack of awareness and the misbelief that harms can only be inflicted physically and not virtually. While some types of cyberviolence are addressed fully or in part in international agreements, many remain unaddressed and are not present or limited in the domestic laws in Southeast Asia including Malaysia. Cybercriminals exploit these gaps to act with near impunity. In addition, feelings of shame and fear of being stigmatized also acts as an obstacle for victims to report such crime to the authorities particularly if those crimes are sexual in nature. Drawing from secondary data of previous research and the available literature, this research seeks to address the different types of complexities and challenges faced by victims of cyberviolence in Malaysia with a specific focus on women victims. In this context, this paper aims to explore the different facets of cyberviolence crimes with a focus on sexual crimes and identify ways on how states can protect women from the potential harms of the internet while keeping their identity discreet. The research will conclude by suggesting ways to improve the protection services of victims and enact laws and policies to prevent cyberviolence from occurring rampantly.
Most of the literature on sex trafficking in Malaysia – reported either in
Malay or English – r... more Most of the literature on sex trafficking in Malaysia – reported either in
Malay or English – revolves around the complexities in combating human
trafficking or on women’s vulnerability and susceptibility of being trafficked.
However, very little literature is based on systematic qualitative data on the
(in)efficacy of the current victim protection policies. This article examines
the current victim protection mechanisms for trafficking victims in Malaysia
and seeks to identify its flaws and weaknesses. It provides an analysis on the
literature of sex trafficking and demonstrates the contradictory approaches
taken by the Malaysian government in assisting women who have been
sexually trafficked. It shows how state agencies project trafficked women
to be helpless and in need of assistance, but depict them as ‘immoral’
individuals who need to be ‘rescued’ and detained in shelters. It also shows
how government institutions have effectively denied women’s agency
through its anti-trafficking laws, and highlights the continuum of harm
experienced by women throughout the trafficking and post-trafficking stage.
The paper concludes that the notion of ‘protection’ is used as a euphemism
for state control, and that women experience a variety of harm from multiple
actors including state institutions that are supposed to protect them
Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (MJSSH)
The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly disrupted people’s lives, economic status, and daily rout... more The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly disrupted people’s lives, economic status, and daily routine. The extensive scale of the virus has caused fear, confusion and panic throughout the globe spurring states to devise stringent procedures to manage the crisis. In Malaysia, A Movement Control Order (MCO) was implemented on 18 March 2020 as a preventive measure to control the spread of the virus. To enforce such restrictions, the government relies heavily on law enforcers, and the criminal justice system to ensure public safety and security. In light of such restrictive measures, those who are severely impacted by such repressive rules are the marginalized communities. This includes trafficked persons, migrants, refugees, and asylum seekers as law enforcers seek to use the pandemic to further control their movements and restrict their rights wherever possible. In this instance, xenophobia, anti-immigrant prejudice, intolerance, social exclusion, and discrimination exacerbates the vul...
Anti-Trafficking Review
This article addresses the knowledge gap surrounding human traffickers in Malaysia. Based on qual... more This article addresses the knowledge gap surrounding human traffickers in Malaysia. Based on qualitative interviews with women identified as victims of trafficking, it explores the women’s perception of their traffickers and their migration experience. The article asserts that the term ‘trafficker’ is complex and misunderstood by scholars, states, and state officials; and that trafficked persons may not necessarily detest their traffickers or even regard them as having caused them harm. Instead, traffickers are sometimes considered ‘helpers’ or people who provide work opportunities and a prospect of a better life. However, this form of relationship is considered exploitative by Malaysian legislation.
Academia Letters, 2022
The COVID-19 pandemic is putting the world under enormous strain, affecting the lives of everyone... more The COVID-19 pandemic is putting the world under enormous strain, affecting the lives of everyone. The unprecedented measures adopted to flatten the infection curve include enforced quarantine, curfews and lockdowns, travel restrictions, and limitations on economic activities and public life. Malaysia, a country with progressive healthcare and dynamic commercial sectors has also been gravely affected by this pandemic. Many organizations including the police are treading on unknown territory and have no blueprint for how to manage the crisis and its consequences. Lockdown enforcement around the world has ranged from partial or night-time curfew to complete lockdown. In Malaysia, a Movement Control Order (MCO) was implemented on 18 March 2020 (which is in its fourth phase at present) as a preventive measure to control the spread of the virus (Prime Minister's Office of Malaysia 2021). Mass movements and gatherings including religious services were prohibited nationwide (Tang 2020). Travel restrictions were put in place for all Malaysians travelling overseas while returning Malaysians from overseas were required to undergo continued medical screening and 14-day quarantine (Tang 2020). Violators of the MCO are subject to a fine amounting to RM1000 and a maximum of 6 months imprisonment (Babulal 2020, Prime Minister's Office of Malaysia 2021). To enforce such restrictions, the government relies heavily on law enforcers and the criminal justice system to ensure public safety and security (Tang 2020). Hence, police are granted additional powers to enforce the MCO and keep the public isolated. However, the manner on how those additional powers and policies are being carried out by the police have become a major point of discussion among human rights advocates. Hundreds of police road-blocks have been set up to curb the movement of public and more than 4,000 people have been arrested for violating virus lockdown orders, making the country the toughest law enforcement action in Southeast Asia (VOA News 2020). In light of such restrictive measures, those who
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Papers by Dr. Haezreena Begum Abdul Hamid
2009 (‘DNA Act’) permits law enforcers to collect DNA samples from suspects, detainees, prisoners and drug users. Such practices demonstrate how the DNA Act is able to reconfigure the criminal justice system through methods that are capable of overriding a person’s autonomy and privacy rights. Therefore, this article aims
to examine three main areas. First, how the DNA Act provides an avenue for law enforcers to collect DNA through force. Second, how illegally obtained evidence can be admitted in court on the grounds of relevancy. Third, whether the weight and value of DNA evidence is sufficient to prove a case beyond reasonable doubt. The article will conclude by asserting two main points. First, that compelling certain individuals to give their DNA samples infringes a person’s right to privacy and autonomy. Second, that DNA samples can only estimate the probability that the
donor is the source of the sample but cannot confirm the person’s participation in a crime. Therefore, this article argues that DNA evidence alone cannot implicate a person beyond reasonable doubt in a criminal trial.
Malay or English – revolves around the complexities in combating human
trafficking or on women’s vulnerability and susceptibility of being trafficked.
However, very little literature is based on systematic qualitative data on the
(in)efficacy of the current victim protection policies. This article examines
the current victim protection mechanisms for trafficking victims in Malaysia
and seeks to identify its flaws and weaknesses. It provides an analysis on the
literature of sex trafficking and demonstrates the contradictory approaches
taken by the Malaysian government in assisting women who have been
sexually trafficked. It shows how state agencies project trafficked women
to be helpless and in need of assistance, but depict them as ‘immoral’
individuals who need to be ‘rescued’ and detained in shelters. It also shows
how government institutions have effectively denied women’s agency
through its anti-trafficking laws, and highlights the continuum of harm
experienced by women throughout the trafficking and post-trafficking stage.
The paper concludes that the notion of ‘protection’ is used as a euphemism
for state control, and that women experience a variety of harm from multiple
actors including state institutions that are supposed to protect them
2009 (‘DNA Act’) permits law enforcers to collect DNA samples from suspects, detainees, prisoners and drug users. Such practices demonstrate how the DNA Act is able to reconfigure the criminal justice system through methods that are capable of overriding a person’s autonomy and privacy rights. Therefore, this article aims
to examine three main areas. First, how the DNA Act provides an avenue for law enforcers to collect DNA through force. Second, how illegally obtained evidence can be admitted in court on the grounds of relevancy. Third, whether the weight and value of DNA evidence is sufficient to prove a case beyond reasonable doubt. The article will conclude by asserting two main points. First, that compelling certain individuals to give their DNA samples infringes a person’s right to privacy and autonomy. Second, that DNA samples can only estimate the probability that the
donor is the source of the sample but cannot confirm the person’s participation in a crime. Therefore, this article argues that DNA evidence alone cannot implicate a person beyond reasonable doubt in a criminal trial.
Malay or English – revolves around the complexities in combating human
trafficking or on women’s vulnerability and susceptibility of being trafficked.
However, very little literature is based on systematic qualitative data on the
(in)efficacy of the current victim protection policies. This article examines
the current victim protection mechanisms for trafficking victims in Malaysia
and seeks to identify its flaws and weaknesses. It provides an analysis on the
literature of sex trafficking and demonstrates the contradictory approaches
taken by the Malaysian government in assisting women who have been
sexually trafficked. It shows how state agencies project trafficked women
to be helpless and in need of assistance, but depict them as ‘immoral’
individuals who need to be ‘rescued’ and detained in shelters. It also shows
how government institutions have effectively denied women’s agency
through its anti-trafficking laws, and highlights the continuum of harm
experienced by women throughout the trafficking and post-trafficking stage.
The paper concludes that the notion of ‘protection’ is used as a euphemism
for state control, and that women experience a variety of harm from multiple
actors including state institutions that are supposed to protect them