Papers by Renáta Přichystalová Švecová
Praehistorische Zeitschrift, 2021
Great Moravia existed from the ninth to the first half of the tenth century AD between the Caroli... more Great Moravia existed from the ninth to the first half of the tenth century AD between the Carolingian West and Slavic “outer Europe”. The powerful polity was considered the first state of the Slavs, and it copied the military- aristocratic organisation of Western Europe. However, recently discovered separate burials with weapons and spurs challenge the existing historical concept. While the graves, with their extravagant burial rites, are reminiscent of the separate cemeteries of Frankish landlords or independent peasant warriors, in Moravia, they represent a different social phenomenon, as shown by our archaeological and osteobiographical analysis. It is hoped that it could be one of the keys to understanding the specific historical and cultural features of this part of the continent at the divide between East and the West.
Prähistorische Zeitschrift, 2019
The Fall of Great Moravia. Reflections on relative and absolute chronology of Early Middle Ages i... more The Fall of Great Moravia. Reflections on relative and absolute chronology of Early Middle Ages in the East-Central Europe. Dating the so-called Great Moravian jewelry and Great Moravian church graveyards is one of the crucial tasks of archaeology of the Early Middle Ages. The chronological systems developed based on the rich graves investigated over the past 60 years within the Czech Republic help in dating archaeological finds from the 9th to the 10th century all over Europe. This study addresses the question of how long the luxury jewelry existed as part of living culture and until when the earliest church graveyards with burials of people clad in the traditional Great Moravian costume existed in Moravia. The solution to this problem is supported by assessments of finds from graves excavated at Pohansko near Břeclav and, most importantly, by radiocarbon dating the application of which is still not common in archaeology of the Early Middle Ages. The result of the present research is a finding that in Great Moravian church graveyards burials continued consistently until the mid-10th century, occasionally probably even a little longer. People were interred there wearing the typical Great Moravian costume which included the luxury jewelry as its component. It is a significant correction of the previous opinions and a partial return to the original dating of Great Moravian material culture from the 1950s and 1960s.
PLOS NEGLECTED TROPICAL DISEASES, Aug 27, 2020
Helminth infections are among the World Health Organization's top neglected diseases with signifi... more Helminth infections are among the World Health Organization's top neglected diseases with significant impact in many Less Economically Developed Countries. Despite no longer being endemic in Europe, the widespread presence of helminth eggs in archaeological deposits indicates that helminths represented a considerable burden in past European populations. Prevalence of infection is a key epidemiological feature that would influence the elimination of endemic intestinal helminths, for example, low prevalence rates may have made it easier to eliminate these infections in Europe without the use of modern anthel-minthic drugs. To determine historical prevalence rates we analysed 589 grave samples from 7 European sites dated between 680 and 1700 CE, identifying two soil transmitted nematodes (Ascaris spp. and Trichuris trichiura) at all locations, and two food derived ces-todes (Diphyllobothrium latum and Taenia spp.) at 4 sites. The rates of nematode infection in the medieval populations (1.5 to 25.6% for T. trichiura; 9.3-42.9% for Ascaris spp.) were comparable to those reported within modern endemically infected populations. There was some evidence of higher levels of nematode infection in younger individuals but not at all sites. The genetic diversity of T. trichiura ITS-1 in single graves was variable but much lower than with communal medieval latrine deposits. The prevalence of food derived cestodes was much lower (1.0-9.9%) than the prevalence of nematodes. Interestingly, sites that contained Taenia spp. eggs also contained D. latum which may reflect local culinary practices. These data demonstrate the importance of helminth infections in Medieval Europe and provide a baseline for studies on the epidemiology of infection in historical and modern contexts. Since the prevalence of medieval STH infections mirror those in modern endemic countries the factors affecting STH decline in Europe may also inform modern intervention campaigns.
Multiple Identities in Prehistory, Early History and Presence; eds.: Bistáková, A. - Březinová, G. - Ramsl, P. C. , 2020
The determination of sex in archaeological skeletal findings, in this case those in the graves di... more The determination of sex in archaeological skeletal findings, in this case those in the graves discovered at Pohansko, has been a matter of controversy since the outset of collaboration between archaeologists and anthropologists. Such discrimination depends on the scientific opinion of experts, the theoretical and practical knowledge they have at
their disposal, and the methods they choose to approach the grave / skeleton. Four graves out of the 205 found in the early medieval stronghold of Břeclav-Pohansko (CZ), specifically in the Southern Suburb, presented discrepancies between ‘archaeological’ and ‘anthropological’ sex/gender. Two of these were child graves in which earrings appeared (graves JP/100, JP/155) and one belonged to an adult individual with the earrings in a functional position
(grave JP/160). All these skeletons were determined to be male individuals on the basis of aDNA analysis. On the other hand, according to aDNA analysis, an axe accompanied one adult skeleton that was determined to be that of a female (grave JP/103). The present paper discusses the quality of the evidence used, together with the cogency and logical reasoning of the archaeological and anthropological approaches. When there is contradiction between the
anthropological and archaeological sex determination of a particular individual, arriving at a consensus depends on several key points: the state of the environment surrounding the archaeological finding, the quality of documentation, the condition of the skeletal material, the anthropological (archaeological) methods employed, and the
archaeologist’s (anthropologist’s) judgement.
PAMÁTKY ARCHEOLOGICKÉ, 2019
The study presents the results of a revisory study of nine early medieval swords and their parts ... more The study presents the results of a revisory study of nine early medieval swords and their parts from Pohansko near Břeclav. The find assemblage is composed of both old and new unpublished finds. The study contains a description of the archaeological context in which the swords were discovered and a detailed typological-metallographic analysis. The swords are precisely dated using stratigraphic and radiocarbon methods, which make it possible to place them in the broader context of the European-wide development of early medieval swords. The study also brings new impulses to the discussion on the social standing of the sword-users based on the application of the sociological concepts of Pierre Bourdieu.
Prähistorische Zeitschrift, 2019
The Fall of Great Moravia. Reflections on relative and absolute chronology of Early Middle Ages i... more The Fall of Great Moravia. Reflections on relative and absolute chronology of Early Middle Ages in the East-Central Europe. Dating the so-called Great Moravian jewelry and Great Moravian church graveyards is one of the crucial tasks of archaeology of the Early Middle Ages. The chronological systems developed based on the rich graves investigated over the past 60 years within the Czech Republic help in dating archaeological finds from the 9th to the 10th century all over Europe. This study addresses the question of how long the luxury jewelry existed as part of living culture and until when the earliest church graveyards with burials of people clad in the traditional Great Moravian costume existed in Moravia. The solution to this problem is supported by assessments of finds from graves excavated at Pohansko near Břeclav and, most importantly, by radiocarbon dating the application of which is still not common in archaeology of the Early Middle Ages. The result of the present research is a finding that in Great Moravian church graveyards burials continued consistently until the mid-10th century, occasionally probably even a little longer. People were interred there wearing the typical Great Moravian costume which included the luxury jewelry as its component. It is a significant correction of the previous opinions and a partial return to the original dating of Great Moravian material culture from the 1950s and 1960s.
International Journal of Paleopathology, 2019
The skeletal remains of the young female (20–24 years) from Grave JP/106, discovered in the South... more The skeletal remains of the young female (20–24 years) from Grave JP/106, discovered in the Southern Suburb of the Břeclav – Pohansko Stronghold (Early Middle Ages, 9th century-beginning of the 10th century, present day Czech Republic) display several noteworthy pathologies. The first is deformation of the mandible, which was most probably caused by a fracture of the ramus in combination with a subcondylar fracture. The spine of this young woman also exhibits a probable traumatic injury of the cervical spine in combination with a slowly growing structure situated inside the spinal canal, which caused deformation centered upon C7. The cervical and thoracic spine together with internal surfaces of several ribs exhibit infectious changes of advanced stage, in all likelihood of tuberculous origin, but osteomyelitis cannot be excluded. Histological analysis of the new bone formation in the ribs confirmed infectious origin, as does Micro CT of C5 and C6. Analyses conducted by two different departments with different methods (PCR amplification of 123 bp long section from IS6110 and Next Generation shotgun sequencing) failed to identify DNA of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from the first rib.
Acta Musei Nationalis Pragae - Historia, 2018
Organisation of funerary areas and character of burial practices at Pohansko near Břeclav (based ... more Organisation of funerary areas and character of burial practices at Pohansko near Břeclav (based on a comparison of the cemetery around the second church and the dispersal burial grounds in the stronghold’s southern suburb):
At the early medieval locality Břeclav – Pohansko we can distinguish two different types of funerary areas: church cemeteries with clearly defined locus sacer and dispersed burial grounds in settlements, where the boundary between the living and funerary space is not clearly defined. Organisation of the area for funerary activities, selection of the burial place and homogeneity of applied burial rites in the above-mentioned two types of funerary areas were different. In order to find out how extensive this difference is, we chose several characteristics of funerary areas and compared them with each other. The key determinants were: spatial structure of funerary areas, orientation and position of individuals buried in grave pits. As an example of a church cemetery we chose the cemetery around the second church in the North-Eastern Suburb of Pohansko. The Southern Suburb of the stronghold yielded data related to funerary areas dispersed in and between settlement structures. The comparison of selected characteristics of burial customs identified in the church cemetery and in dispersed cemeteries demonstrates that burials around churches were most probably organised and planned centrally and the organisation and supervision of funerary activities might have been in the hands of clergy. The burials in cemeteries within the settlement structure, on the other hand, were organised in accordance with customs of local community. The organisation and supervision of these funerary areas were most probably in the hands of persons approved and authorised by the community, maybe pagan priests (žrec), some significant community member, or the “Council of Elders”.
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 2018
Throughout history, humans have been afflicted by parasitic worms, and eggs are readily detected ... more Throughout history, humans have been afflicted by parasitic worms, and eggs are readily detected in archaeological deposits. This study integrated parasitological and ancient DNA methods with a large sample set dating between Neolithic and Early Modern periods to explore the utility of molecular archaeoparasitology as a new approach to study the past. Molecular analyses provided unequivocal species-level parasite identification and revealed location-specific epidemiological signatures. Faecal –oral transmitted nematodes (Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura) were ubiquitous across time and space. By contrast, high numbers of food-associated cestodes (Diphyllobothrium latum and Taenia saginata) were restricted to medieval Lü beck. The presence of these cestodes and changes in their prevalence at approximately 1300 CE indicate substantial alterations in diet or parasite availability. Trichuris trichiura ITS-1 sequences grouped into two clades; one ubiquitous and one restricted to medieval Lü beck and Bristol. The high sequence diversity of T.t.ITS-1 detected in Lü beck is consistent with its importance as a Hanseatic trading centre. Collectively, these results introduce molecular archaeoparasitology as an artefact-independent source of historical evidence.
Anthropologischer Anzeiger, 2017
The aim of the study is to identify possible differences in the prevalence of biological stress m... more The aim of the study is to identify possible differences in the prevalence of biological stress markers (cribra orbitalia, linear enammel hypoplasia), dental caries, activity markers (Schmorl's nodes) and markers of violence (traumatic lesions) in populations from a typical graveyard around the first church (9th-10th century AD) in the stronghold and from settlement burials in the southern bailey (second half of the 9th - beginning of the 10th century AD) of Slavs from Pohansko (Czech Republic). Cribra orbitalia and enamel hypoplasia did not markedly differ in either population. On the other hand, co-occurrence of both markers was statistically different and distinction in higher age categories could indicate diverse living conditions. Lower cariousness in the population from the southern bailey was identified. The nature of postcranial traumatic lesions in both populations indicates rather their accidental origin. However, a higher incidence of cranial injuries points to more violent activities in the population from Pohansko compared to Mikulčice. A high number of healed face injuries in males from the southern bailey could indicate higher intragroup violence in this population.
At the End of Great Moravia: Skeletons from tne Second Church Cemetery at Pohansko-Břeclav (9th-10th Century A.D.). In: BAR International Series, 2017
This chapter contains a short history of the field excavations of the funeral features at Pohansk... more This chapter contains a short history of the field excavations of the funeral features at Pohansko (Břeclav, Czech Republic) concentrating on the excavation of the 2nd church cemetery at Pohansko. The chapter includes a brief description of the archaeological documentation development of the unearthed inhumation graves from 1959 until today. The procedures and documentation methods of the funerary contexts discovered in the graveyard around the 2nd church located in the north-eastern suburb of Pohansko stronghold are thoroughly explained.
American journal of physical anthropology, Jan 29, 2015
We tested the effect of population-specific linear body proportions on stature estimation. We use... more We tested the effect of population-specific linear body proportions on stature estimation. We used a skeletal sample of 31 males and 20 females from the Early Medieval site at Pohansko (Břeclav, Central Europe) and a comparative Central European Early Medieval sample of 45 males and 28 females. We developed new population-specific equations for the Pohansko sample using anatomical reconstructions of stature, then compared percentage prediction errors (%PEs) of anatomical stature from limb bone lengths using the derived Pohansko equations with those previously derived from more general European and other Early Medieval samples. Among general European equations, the lowest %PEs for the Pohansko sample were obtained using the equations of Formicola and Franceschi: Am J Phys Anthropol 100 (1996) 83-88 and Ruff et al.: Am J Phys Anthropol 148 (2012) 601-617. However, unexpectedly, the choice between tibial latitudinal variants proposed by Ruff et al.: Am J Phys Anthropol 148 (2012) 601-6...
The article briefly reviewed the results of the archaeological research of the northeastern subur... more The article briefly reviewed the results of the archaeological research of the northeastern suburb (bailey) of the Great Moravian stronghold Břeclav-Pohansko in the research seasons 2012 and 2013.
The study involves the detailed processing and evaluation of all textile relics and prints from t... more The study involves the detailed processing and evaluation of all textile relics and prints from the inventory of finds at the Great Moravian agglomeration of Břeclav-Pohansko. The selection of the studied material was aimed at artefacts found in graves in the cemetery at the first church of the ‘Manor Court,’ from the latest excavation of the cemetery around the rotunda in the northeastern suburb, from the excavation of the southern suburb and from the excavation in the northeastern part of the stronghold’s fortification. Attention was also paid to tools, especially spindle whorls and loom weights, which are an important part of the two key phases of textile production, i.e. spinning and weaving. The description of individual tools, their precise location and a spatial analysis of their occurrence and concentration thus enabled thoughts on possible production precincts at the site. The study presents an assemblage of 43 textile fragments preserved in the corrosion layers of metal artefacts, 273 stone and ceramic spindle whorls and 66 clay loom weights.
The study presents the archaeological discovery made in 2006 in the northeast suburb of Pohansko.... more The study presents the archaeological discovery made in 2006 in the northeast suburb of Pohansko. The interdisciplinary excavation conducted at the site over the following five years revealed the remains of previously unknown early medieval church architecture – a rotunda surrounded by a large cemetery in which one-hundred and fifty-two individuals were buried. The rotunda represents the second Great Moravian church discovered at Pohansko. The first Christian shrine was discovered in 1958 at the beginning of systematic archaeological excavations that continue at the site and the surrounding area to this day. The most significant finding from the latest excavation is that the basic load-bearing structure of the rotunda in the northeast suburb was made of wood, despite the fact that the church appeared from the outside to be made entirely of stone. The presence of five graves inside the church is likewise noteworthy. Two men, and three children aged between eighteen months and twelve years were buried beneath the floor of the church at a time when the building was already standing. Based on finds from the graves in and outside of the church, the existence of the rotunda can be dated to the high Great Moravian period in the second half of the ninth century, with a probable duration into the first decades of the tenth century.
In European environment it is already since the Migration Period that we come upon intentionally ... more In European environment it is already since the Migration Period that we come upon intentionally deposited horse skeletons or horse burials in both usual graveyards and settlements. This custom is archaeologically provable still in the 11th–12th centuries. Horse burials either were part of magic rituals related to mythology or have served as an offering relevant to a specific social rank of the deceased. The presented paper reflects on how to interpret six examples of intentionally disposed horses within the settlement context in the area of the Břeclav-Pohansko stronghold by analysing the excavation findings, comparing them to similar early medieval findings published, and making use of hitherto knowledge on Slavic mythology and religiosity.
This article presents an in-depth examination of glass beads recovered from graves in the souther... more This article presents an in-depth examination of glass beads recovered from graves in the southern suburb of the Břeclav-Pohansko stronghold (in what is now the Czech Republic) that have been dated to the ninth century. The beads were classified according to traditional typological categories, evaluated by manufacturing process, and analyzed to determine their chemical composition. These examinations revealed that most of the beads were not produced locally; instead, they should be regarded as imports from the Frankish empire or from former Roman provincial territories on the Danube. The finds also showed evidence that they had been made by craftsmen who were imitating transversely segmented beads. Because no tools or technological evidence of glass production has yet been discovered at the Břeclav-Pohansko site, it is likely that beads were made locally with glass that had been imported from western or southeastern Europe.
Assessing of archaeological features, such as settlement and grave pits, is traditionally a matte... more Assessing of archaeological features, such as settlement and grave pits, is traditionally a matter of careful and sometimes time-consuming examination by using comparative methods. Despite considered one of fundamentals in archaeology this approach is known to be heavily dependant on a degree of researcher’s erudition and his/her subjective perception of studied issues. Therefore, as alternative, statistics-based methods were suggested as helpful assistance while dealing with unspecified features. This paper re-examines 57 unspecified features from the Southern Suburb of the Great Moravian stronghold Břeclav-Pohansko, whose purpose was previously left unresolved. In order to distinguish grave pits from settlement features we combined the traditional comparative assessment approach with computer-aided techniques featuring univariate and multivariate statistics. The comparison between the set of unspecified features and true grave pit originated from the same archaeological site was carried out on features’ dimensions and orientation.
Archaeological research in the southern bailey of the Great Moravian stronghold at Břeclav-Pohans... more Archaeological research in the southern bailey of the Great Moravian stronghold at Břeclav-Pohansko revealed that funerary equipment in several graves comprised glass beads and buttons. With regard to chemical composition of the raw material from which they were made it can be concluded that beads from alkaline glass containing more than 10 wt. % Na2O are dominant, whereas beads from siliceous glass containing more than 75 wt. % SiO2 and up to 10 wt. % Na2O as well as chemically unclassi' able beads are less frequent.
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Papers by Renáta Přichystalová Švecová
their disposal, and the methods they choose to approach the grave / skeleton. Four graves out of the 205 found in the early medieval stronghold of Břeclav-Pohansko (CZ), specifically in the Southern Suburb, presented discrepancies between ‘archaeological’ and ‘anthropological’ sex/gender. Two of these were child graves in which earrings appeared (graves JP/100, JP/155) and one belonged to an adult individual with the earrings in a functional position
(grave JP/160). All these skeletons were determined to be male individuals on the basis of aDNA analysis. On the other hand, according to aDNA analysis, an axe accompanied one adult skeleton that was determined to be that of a female (grave JP/103). The present paper discusses the quality of the evidence used, together with the cogency and logical reasoning of the archaeological and anthropological approaches. When there is contradiction between the
anthropological and archaeological sex determination of a particular individual, arriving at a consensus depends on several key points: the state of the environment surrounding the archaeological finding, the quality of documentation, the condition of the skeletal material, the anthropological (archaeological) methods employed, and the
archaeologist’s (anthropologist’s) judgement.
At the early medieval locality Břeclav – Pohansko we can distinguish two different types of funerary areas: church cemeteries with clearly defined locus sacer and dispersed burial grounds in settlements, where the boundary between the living and funerary space is not clearly defined. Organisation of the area for funerary activities, selection of the burial place and homogeneity of applied burial rites in the above-mentioned two types of funerary areas were different. In order to find out how extensive this difference is, we chose several characteristics of funerary areas and compared them with each other. The key determinants were: spatial structure of funerary areas, orientation and position of individuals buried in grave pits. As an example of a church cemetery we chose the cemetery around the second church in the North-Eastern Suburb of Pohansko. The Southern Suburb of the stronghold yielded data related to funerary areas dispersed in and between settlement structures. The comparison of selected characteristics of burial customs identified in the church cemetery and in dispersed cemeteries demonstrates that burials around churches were most probably organised and planned centrally and the organisation and supervision of funerary activities might have been in the hands of clergy. The burials in cemeteries within the settlement structure, on the other hand, were organised in accordance with customs of local community. The organisation and supervision of these funerary areas were most probably in the hands of persons approved and authorised by the community, maybe pagan priests (žrec), some significant community member, or the “Council of Elders”.
their disposal, and the methods they choose to approach the grave / skeleton. Four graves out of the 205 found in the early medieval stronghold of Břeclav-Pohansko (CZ), specifically in the Southern Suburb, presented discrepancies between ‘archaeological’ and ‘anthropological’ sex/gender. Two of these were child graves in which earrings appeared (graves JP/100, JP/155) and one belonged to an adult individual with the earrings in a functional position
(grave JP/160). All these skeletons were determined to be male individuals on the basis of aDNA analysis. On the other hand, according to aDNA analysis, an axe accompanied one adult skeleton that was determined to be that of a female (grave JP/103). The present paper discusses the quality of the evidence used, together with the cogency and logical reasoning of the archaeological and anthropological approaches. When there is contradiction between the
anthropological and archaeological sex determination of a particular individual, arriving at a consensus depends on several key points: the state of the environment surrounding the archaeological finding, the quality of documentation, the condition of the skeletal material, the anthropological (archaeological) methods employed, and the
archaeologist’s (anthropologist’s) judgement.
At the early medieval locality Břeclav – Pohansko we can distinguish two different types of funerary areas: church cemeteries with clearly defined locus sacer and dispersed burial grounds in settlements, where the boundary between the living and funerary space is not clearly defined. Organisation of the area for funerary activities, selection of the burial place and homogeneity of applied burial rites in the above-mentioned two types of funerary areas were different. In order to find out how extensive this difference is, we chose several characteristics of funerary areas and compared them with each other. The key determinants were: spatial structure of funerary areas, orientation and position of individuals buried in grave pits. As an example of a church cemetery we chose the cemetery around the second church in the North-Eastern Suburb of Pohansko. The Southern Suburb of the stronghold yielded data related to funerary areas dispersed in and between settlement structures. The comparison of selected characteristics of burial customs identified in the church cemetery and in dispersed cemeteries demonstrates that burials around churches were most probably organised and planned centrally and the organisation and supervision of funerary activities might have been in the hands of clergy. The burials in cemeteries within the settlement structure, on the other hand, were organised in accordance with customs of local community. The organisation and supervision of these funerary areas were most probably in the hands of persons approved and authorised by the community, maybe pagan priests (žrec), some significant community member, or the “Council of Elders”.
Kniha o druhém kostelním pohřebišti na Severovýchodním předhradí hradiska Břeclav – Pohansko je završením 5-letého badatelského úsilí týmu vedeného prof. Jiřím Macháčkem z Masarykovy univerzity. Publikace obsahuje ucelenou informaci o populaci pohřbené v tomto prostoru na konci 9. a v první polovině 10. století. Kniha se skládá z kompletního katalogu pohřebiště a z analytické a syntetické části, hodnotící funerální areál z pohledu archeologie, historie a antropologie. Tato část knihy je rozdělená do 11 nosných kapitol: Severovýchodní předhradí v kontextu systematického výzkumu Pohanska – Charakteristika lokality z hlediska přírodního prostředí – Metodika archeologického výzkumu – Rozsah pohřebiště a Pohřební ritus – Tafonomicko-demografická charakteristika kosterních nálezů – Artefakty jako součást hrobové výbavy – Chronologie pohřebiště – Prostorová struktura pohřebiště a Sociální struktura komunity – Vztah pohřební a obytné komponenty. Knihu integrálně doplňuje komplexní publikace o kosterních pozůstatcích z pohřebiště, kterou připravil tým pod vedením doc. V. Sládka z Univerzity Karlovy.
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Session theme: 4. Theory and Archaeological Scrutiny
Session 336: BURIAL AFTER THE END OF THE WORLD
The stronghold of Břeclav-Pohansko (South Moravia, CZ), dating from the 9th to the first half of the 10th century AD, is a very interesting site in terms of burial behaviour. Two basic types of cemeteries can be distinguished: firstly, the cemetery around the church and secondly, the cemeteries identified throughout the central agglomeration, i.e. the scattered or dispersed cemeteries or small groups of graves within the settlement structures, situated between settlement features. A total of 559 graves were investigated in the churchyards. Almost the same number of graves - 485 - were uncovered in the context of scattered cemeteries within the settlement structures. Outside the church cemeteries, 46.5% of all discovered graves were located. We have identified very heterogeneous burial practices, which include religious, social and chronological factors. We assume that burial areas and rituals were not organised centrally, but under the auspices of selected authorised persons from individual discrete settlement units. The community that buried its deceased here was well aware of the Christian religion and its burial rules, so why did they choose not to bury their dead in cemeteries around the church? Was it their choice, or could they not be buried there? Can these questions ever be answered?