Skip to main content

Carter F Smith

Middle Tennessee State University, Criminal Justice, Faculty Member

Followers

787

Following

223

Co-authors

5

Public Views

Carter F. Smith has a background in government, non-profit and for-profit organizations. During his more than twenty-two year career with the United States Army, Dr. Smith served as Criminal Intelligence & Anti-Terrorism Program Manager, Team Chief of the Gang Suppression Team, Detachment Sergeant, and Special Agent-in-Charge for the US Army Criminal Investigations Command (CID).
Phone: 615-656-3505
Address: Department of Criminal Justice Administration
Jones Hall, Room 223
P.O. Box 238
Murfreesboro, TN 37132

less

Russell Jacobson

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Joseph C Clarke

Jacksonville University

Gonzaga University

Christopher West

Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen

InterestsView All (59)

Uploads

Papers by Carter F Smith

3/8/25, 11:25 AM Samuel Mason: Revolutionary Turncoat or Opportunistic Pirate? -Journal of the American Revolution

Journal of the American Revolution, 2025

Samuel Mason remains a controversial figure in American history, embodying the complex interplay ... more Samuel Mason remains a controversial figure in American history, embodying the complex interplay between loyalty, survival, and criminality during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Initially serving as a Revolutionary War officer and militia commander at Fort Henry, Mason later became infamous as a river pirate and bandit along the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. This article explores whether Mason was a genuine turncoat who betrayed the revolutionary cause or an opportunistic figure who leveraged the instability of the post-war frontier for personal gain. By examining historical records, military service accounts, and contemporary reports of his criminal exploits, this analysis sheds light on Mason’s transition from frontier defender to leader of a notorious outlaw network. His story illustrates the blurred lines between war heroism and outlaw survivalism in early American history, challenging simplistic narratives of loyalty and treachery.

Gangs and the Military Note 5 The Historical Evolution of Cross-Border Crime Small Wars Journal

Small Wars Journal, 2025

This note examines the historical evolution of cross-border crime through the case of Samuel Ross... more This note examines the historical evolution of cross-border crime through the case of Samuel Ross (Sam) Mason, an 18th-century river pirate who capitalized on economic instability, weak governance, and jurisdictional chaos to build a criminal enterprise along the Mississippi River. By analyzing Mason's operations, the paper explores the systemic factors that allowed organized crime to flourish without strong state control and coordinated law enforcement. His case is compared with modern transnational organized crime, including drug cartels, human trafficking networks, and money laundering, which exploit similar legal loopholes and economic vulnerabilities in contemporary global systems. The paper draws historical parallels between early piracy, smuggling, and criminal economies with today's illicit activities.

A Comparative Analysis of OMG and OMCG in Outlaw Motorcycle Gang Research

This article examines the use of the abbreviations "OMG" (Outlaw Motorcycle Gang) and "OMCG" (Out... more This article examines the use of the abbreviations "OMG" (Outlaw Motorcycle Gang) and "OMCG" (Outlaw Motorcycle Club Gang) across law enforcement, academia, and public perception in the United States, Canada, England, and Australia. It considers the advantages of adopting "OMCG" to avoid confusion with the colloquial expression "OMG" (Oh My God). The discussion highlights how countries approach this terminology in legal and academic spheres. The study presents a balanced analysis, detailing the pros and cons of each abbreviation without advocating for a single term. It concludes by exploring strategic steps for terminology standardization.

Gangs and the Military Note 4 The Role of the East Coast in the Development of Military Trained Gan20200216 41609 c0s5ag

Small Wars Journal, 2020

This research note reviews the state of military-trained gang members (MTGMs) in the Eastern Unit... more This research note reviews the state of military-trained gang members (MTGMs) in the Eastern United States. In each wartime era since the Revolutionary War, there have been MTGMs who engaged in criminal activities in civilian communities. The earliest MTGMs in the United States received their training in the colonial militia. One group started as a New York City street gang, received military training and experience in Mexico during the Mexican-American War, and were released from active duty in San Francisco, just before the Gold Rush of 1848. An individual MTGM started as a well-known crime boss in New York and joined the military to fight in World War I. Contemporary MTGMs challenge military discipline and threaten community security.

Gangs and the Military Note 3: The Role of the West Coast in the Development of Military-Trained Gang Members

Small Wars Journal, 2020

MTGMs, whether from Street Gangs, Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs (OMGs), or Domestic Terrorist Extremist... more MTGMs, whether from Street Gangs, Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs (OMGs), or Domestic Terrorist Extremist (DTE) groups, have endangered U.S. communities since before the birth of the country. Early gang leaders acquired military training before and during the Revolutionary War, and continued their criminal activity as the population transitioned westward. The earliest MTGMs included river pirates, stealing cargo and attacking passengers along the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and later the street gangsters who controlled much of the criminal street business in New York, New York and some of the police and politicians of that time. Members of one DTE group started as a New York street gang, received military training and experience in Mexico during the Mexican-American War, and were released from active duty in the newly-named city of San Francisco, just before the Gold Rush of 1848. The issues of MTGMs today tend to mirror those in history, indicating that a solution to the problem is elusive, perhaps even unattainable.Survey results regarding the perception of MTGM presence in the Western United States are included, as are the results of the most recent Gang and Domestic Extremist Activity Threat Assessment (GDEATA) by the U.S. Army and the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s (FBI) National Gang Intelligence Center (NGIC). The connection of street gangs, OMGs, and DTEs to the military was examined, as were possible remedies for limiting the dangerousness of those criminals in the community. The note is intended to promote the awareness of the MTGM situation and encourage scholars and practitioners to conduct research concerning this issue in other locations in the United States and foreign nations towards identifying strategies to control the problem or mitigate the effects. The confluence of gangs and the military presents significant social and security challenges with significant national and global security potentials.

The Role of California and the West Coast in the Development of Military-Trained Gang Members (MTGMs

American Society of Criminology Conference, 2019

Military-trained gang members, whether from Street Gangs, Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs (OMCGs), or Dom... more Military-trained gang members, whether from Street Gangs, Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs (OMCGs), or Domestic Terrorist Extremist (DTE) groups, have endangered our communities since before the birth of the country. Early gang leaders acquired military training before and during the Revolutionary War, and continued their criminal activity in New York, New York and San Francisco, California. The earliest MTGMs included both the river pirates, stealing cargo and attacking passengers along the Mississippi River, and the street gangsters who controlled much of the street business and some of the police and politicians of that time. One such DTE group received military training and experience in Mexico during the Mexican-American War prior to release in San Francisco before the Gold Rush of 1848. This paper will survey the events both historically and recently that have contributed to the presence and dangerousness of gangs and the military. Survey results regarding the perception of MTGM presence in the Western United States are included, as are the results of the most recent Gang and Domestic Extremist Activity Threat Assessment (GDEATA) by the U.S. Army and the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s (FBI) National Gang Intelligence Center (NGIC). The connection of the state's current street gangs, OMCGs, and DTEs to the military will be examined, as will possible remedies for limiting the dangerousness of those criminals in the community. Excerpts from the author’s book Gangs and the Military: Gangsters, Bikers, and Terrorists with Military Training are included in this paper.

The Role of California and the West Coast in the Development of Military-Trained Gang Members (MTGMs

GANGS AND THE MILITARY NOTE 2: MILITARY-TRAINED GANG MEMBERS AS CRIMINAL INSURGENTS

Small Wars Journal, 2018

Military-trained gang members (MTGMs) have received military training such as tactics, weapons, e... more Military-trained gang members (MTGMs) have received military training such as tactics, weapons, explosives, or equipment, and the use of distinctive military skills. Gangs with military-trained members often pose an ongoing and persistent military and political threat. At least one-tenth of one percent of the U.S. population is an MTGM, and there are between 150,000 and 500,000 MTGMs. That number demonstrates an alarming domestic and national security threat that includes a number of potentially significant implications for government leaders in the U.S., and in other countries where third generation (3GEN) Gangs or Drug Trafficking Organizations (DTOs) are prevalent. The intersection of MTGMs and criminal insurgencies threatens national security and communities, undermining the economic and political foundations of local and state government. These criminal organizations often behave like insurgents, engaging in governance to support the illicit marketplace or acting in police or social roles in the community. Counterinsurgency strategies, including cultural awareness should be implemented alongside traditional anti-gang measures.

GANGS AND THE MILITARY NOTE 1: THE INCREASED THREAT OF THIRD GENERATION GANGS WITH MILITARY-TRAINED GANG MEMBERS (3GEN Gangs with MTGMs)

Small Wars Journal, 2018

In an early exploration of the evolution of group violence in its most common form, John Sullivan... more In an early exploration of the evolution of group violence in its most common form, John Sullivan found the beginning indicators of Third Generation (3GEN) Gangs, which pose a significant threat to the safety, security, and future of our communities. 3GEN gangs are highly sophisticated, with goals of political power or financial acquisition. First generation gangs are those considered primarily turf gangs. Some turf gangs evolve into drug gangs or entrepreneurial organizations with a market-orientation, thus filling the second generation. Gangs in the third generation include those with a mix of political and mercenary elements who operate or are at least capable of operating in the global community.
Military-trained gang members (MTGMs) have been identified in every wartime period for the United States, and active duty MTGMs threaten the cohesiveness of military units and undermine the authority of military leadership, using the military to further their criminal organization’s goals. They are a clear threat to military discipline, bringing corrupt influences, an increase in criminal activity, and a threat to military family members on military installations.

The Threat of Street Gangs, Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs, and Domestic Terrorist/Extremist Groups with Military-Trained Members

by Carter F Smith and Joshua Harms

Military-trained gang members (MTGMs) have been identified in every wartime period for the United... more Military-trained gang members (MTGMs) have been identified in every wartime period for the United States—from the Revolutionary War to the current conflicts. MTGMs in the military threaten the cohesiveness of military units and undermine the authority of military leadership. They use the military to further their criminal organization's goals, whether distributing illicit drugs and weapons or recruiting like-minded service members. They are a clear threat to military discipline, bringing corrupt influences, an increase in criminal activity, and a threat to military family members on military installations. They also serve to depreciate the perceived value of the military installation in the civilian community. For communities adjacent to military installations, MTGMs add a level of dangerousness to the criminal community with their warfighter training. They also share the ability to remain undetected by law enforcement or members of the community, which allows their organization to thrive and grow unchecked. It is important to note that when we talk about military-trained gang members, we typically mean not only street gang members but also members of Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs (OMGs) and Domestic Terrorist Extremist (DTE) groups (Smith, 2017).

Volunteer Stress: Examining Job-related Stress and Effects for Gang Officers in Tennessee

Using a sample of gang officers in Tennessee, this study identified the growing effect that stres... more Using a sample of gang officers in Tennessee, this study identified the growing effect that stress brings to police and corrections officers and how it affects their commitment to their organizations. A survey questionnaire including demographic questions and questions regarding the respondent's stress and coping methods was administered. Many respondents reported that unproductive leadership/management styles were the most stressful. The next highest scores involved pay, fellow officers, equipment, favoritism, and recognition. The stressor subgroups were categorized as court related, public related, organizational, work related, exposure to danger, and interpersonal/personal. Respondents experienced organizational stress more than any other, followed by interpersonal/personal stress. Corrections officers generally reported more stress from their organization than police officers, and more overall stress. Officers with college degrees seemed to report more overall stress than their counterparts, particularly organizational stress. Officers with 6-15 years of experience seemed to be affected by stress the most, and female officers reported a higher score on variables related to job security. For potential for transfer or tardiness as a stress response, officers working for the state showed the highest scores. The three most widely adopted coping methods to reduce stress were exercise, recreational activity with family, and religion. A majority of officers said they would participate in activities at a fitness facility, more than half would engage with a stress management program, and about one-third would attend a family support seminar.

Engaging the Learner. Annual Instructional Technology Conference (12th, Murfreesboro, Tennessee, April 1-3, 2007)

Online Submission, Apr 1, 2007

The purpose of this paper was to examine the benefits of supplementing the classroom environment ... more

Youth Crime Prevention Initiatives, United States

Encyclopedia of Victimology and Crime Prevention, 2010

Department of Homeland Security

The Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 2013

Project Safe Neighborhoods

Encyclopedia of Victimology and Crime Prevention, 2010

When is a prison gang not a prison gang: A focused review of prison gang literature

Communities everywhere have experienced the negative effects of street gangs, whose members commi... more Communities everywhere have experienced the negative effects of street gangs, whose members commit crimes, and often end up in prison. Other gangs form in prison, and their influence often extends to the streets. The presence and influence of prison gang members in the community increases the threat of violence to citizens. Research on prison gangs has been conducted regularly since the mid-1980s. At that time, a thorough survey of the U.S. prison gang climate was conducted. That research included a brief reference to the Gypsy Jokers as the first U.S. Prison gang in the Washington State Penitentiary, in 1950. No original source of that information was identified. Since then, a handful of scholars have recited the same information, sometimes identifying the 1985 work, and at other times, identifying secondary sources. The Gypsy Jokers are, and have been, a motorcycle gang, and are considered an Outlaw Motorcycle Gang (OMG) by law enforcement. They have consistently identified their origin in San Francisco, CA, in 1956. They are not, nor have they ever claimed to be, a prison gang, and their first presence in Washington State was in the 1960s. This article was developed with research included in a textbook on gangs that is pending publication (Knox, Gilbertson, Etter, and Smith, 2016).

When is a prison gang not a prison gang: When it’s an Outlaw Motorcycle Gang

Communities everywhere have experienced the negative effects of street gangs, whose members commi... more Communities everywhere have experienced the negative effects of street gangs, whose members commit crimes, and often end up in prison. Other gangs form in prison, and their influence often extends to the streets. The presence and influence of prison gang members in the community increases the threat of violence to citizens. Research on prison gangs has been conducted regularly since the mid-1980s. At that time, a thorough survey of the U.S. prison gang climate was conducted. That research included a brief reference to the Gypsy Jokers as the first U.S. Prison gang in the Washington State Penitentiary, in 1950. No original source of that information was identified. Since then, a handful of scholars have recited the same information, sometimes identifying the 1985 work, and at other times, identifying secondary sources. The Gypsy Jokers are, and have been, a motorcycle gang, and are considered an Outlaw Motorcycle Gang (OMG) by law enforcement. They have consistently identified their origin in San Francisco, CA, in 1956.

They are not, nor have they ever claimed to be, a prison gang, and their first presence in Washington State was in the 1960s. This article was developed with research included in a paper
submitted to the Journal of Gang Research and a textbook on gangs that is pending publication (Knox, Gilbertson, Etter, and Smith, 2016).

Military-Trained Gang Members – Two different perspectives

Communities everywhere have experienced the negative effects of street gangs. The presence of mil... more Communities everywhere have experienced the negative effects of street gangs. The presence of military-trained gang members (MTGMs) in the community increases the threat of violence to citizens. The problem addressed was the growing presence of MTGMs in civilian communities in two locations. The purpose was to determine the perceived presence of MTGMs by two different groups. Gang investigators in Millington, TN and patrol officers in El Paso, TX were surveyed regarding their perceptions of the presence of MTGMs in their communities. Most respondents in both groups indicated that they had seen a recent increase in the number of military-trained personnel associated with gangs. Recommendations for policymakers included identifying gangs and related groups as Security Threat Groups (STGs) to limit the potential for the perception of racial bias in criminal gang investigations. Recommendations for military leaders included acknowledgement of the annual fluctuation in gang-related crime without arbitrarily quantifying the threat level. Recommendations for commanders included treating all drug trafficking cases as if gang members were in some way connected, whether in manufacturing or distribution. This article was developed from a paper submitted to the American Society of Criminology conference (November 2012).

Military-trained gang members in the Volunteer State: Four year follow-up with the investigators

by Carter F Smith and Tae Choo

The presence of military-trained gang members (MTGMs) in the community increases the threat of vi... more The presence of military-trained gang members (MTGMs) in the community increases the threat of violence to citizens. The problem addressed was the growing presence of military-trained gang members in civilian communities in Tennessee. We examined the perceived presence of military-trained gang members of gang investigators at the annual conference and whether there had been changes since the previous survey. Many respondents reported gang members in their jurisdictions were increasingly using military-type weapons or explosives (51%), as well as military-type equipment like body armor, night-vision devices, etc. (30%). Although few (24%) agreed that gang members were using military-type tactics, a majority (over 90%) reported gang members committed home invasions and armed robberies. Many (46%) reported that there were gang members in their jurisdiction currently serving in the military, while 64% reported they had gang members who had served. Most of the respondents (66%) did not believe that military representatives advised their department when gang members were discharged from the military. More of the 2014 respondents than those in 2010 reported gang member use of military weapons, explosives, and equipment. More also reported gang members committed home invasions and armed robberies, and gang members currently in the military in their jurisdictions. Fewer thought their organization had a working relationship with military investigative authorities.

Finding real-world relevance

There is often a conflict between the world of practitioners and the world of academics. After se... more There is often a conflict between the world of practitioners and the world of academics. After several publications and presentations, the lack of a real impact on practitioners was identified. Speaking as a subject matter expert at professional conferences and as a researching academic at others was becoming a chore, as delivery of the same information required significantly different packaging. Having found that relevant expertise led to invitations to speak at practitioner conferences and that surveys are best done in person, the process was revamped. Engagement in both professional and academic conferences provides connections with both worlds. The ability to hand out paper surveys increases the likelihood of a much higher response rate. Higher response rates yield better data and invitations to speak at practitioner conferences have a positive impact on access to research data.

3/8/25, 11:25 AM Samuel Mason: Revolutionary Turncoat or Opportunistic Pirate? -Journal of the American Revolution

Journal of the American Revolution, 2025

Samuel Mason remains a controversial figure in American history, embodying the complex interplay ... more Samuel Mason remains a controversial figure in American history, embodying the complex interplay between loyalty, survival, and criminality during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Initially serving as a Revolutionary War officer and militia commander at Fort Henry, Mason later became infamous as a river pirate and bandit along the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. This article explores whether Mason was a genuine turncoat who betrayed the revolutionary cause or an opportunistic figure who leveraged the instability of the post-war frontier for personal gain. By examining historical records, military service accounts, and contemporary reports of his criminal exploits, this analysis sheds light on Mason’s transition from frontier defender to leader of a notorious outlaw network. His story illustrates the blurred lines between war heroism and outlaw survivalism in early American history, challenging simplistic narratives of loyalty and treachery.

Gangs and the Military Note 5 The Historical Evolution of Cross-Border Crime Small Wars Journal

Small Wars Journal, 2025

This note examines the historical evolution of cross-border crime through the case of Samuel Ross... more This note examines the historical evolution of cross-border crime through the case of Samuel Ross (Sam) Mason, an 18th-century river pirate who capitalized on economic instability, weak governance, and jurisdictional chaos to build a criminal enterprise along the Mississippi River. By analyzing Mason's operations, the paper explores the systemic factors that allowed organized crime to flourish without strong state control and coordinated law enforcement. His case is compared with modern transnational organized crime, including drug cartels, human trafficking networks, and money laundering, which exploit similar legal loopholes and economic vulnerabilities in contemporary global systems. The paper draws historical parallels between early piracy, smuggling, and criminal economies with today's illicit activities.

A Comparative Analysis of OMG and OMCG in Outlaw Motorcycle Gang Research

This article examines the use of the abbreviations "OMG" (Outlaw Motorcycle Gang) and "OMCG" (Out... more This article examines the use of the abbreviations "OMG" (Outlaw Motorcycle Gang) and "OMCG" (Outlaw Motorcycle Club Gang) across law enforcement, academia, and public perception in the United States, Canada, England, and Australia. It considers the advantages of adopting "OMCG" to avoid confusion with the colloquial expression "OMG" (Oh My God). The discussion highlights how countries approach this terminology in legal and academic spheres. The study presents a balanced analysis, detailing the pros and cons of each abbreviation without advocating for a single term. It concludes by exploring strategic steps for terminology standardization.

Gangs and the Military Note 4 The Role of the East Coast in the Development of Military Trained Gan20200216 41609 c0s5ag

Small Wars Journal, 2020

This research note reviews the state of military-trained gang members (MTGMs) in the Eastern Unit... more This research note reviews the state of military-trained gang members (MTGMs) in the Eastern United States. In each wartime era since the Revolutionary War, there have been MTGMs who engaged in criminal activities in civilian communities. The earliest MTGMs in the United States received their training in the colonial militia. One group started as a New York City street gang, received military training and experience in Mexico during the Mexican-American War, and were released from active duty in San Francisco, just before the Gold Rush of 1848. An individual MTGM started as a well-known crime boss in New York and joined the military to fight in World War I. Contemporary MTGMs challenge military discipline and threaten community security.

Gangs and the Military Note 3: The Role of the West Coast in the Development of Military-Trained Gang Members

Small Wars Journal, 2020

MTGMs, whether from Street Gangs, Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs (OMGs), or Domestic Terrorist Extremist... more MTGMs, whether from Street Gangs, Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs (OMGs), or Domestic Terrorist Extremist (DTE) groups, have endangered U.S. communities since before the birth of the country. Early gang leaders acquired military training before and during the Revolutionary War, and continued their criminal activity as the population transitioned westward. The earliest MTGMs included river pirates, stealing cargo and attacking passengers along the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and later the street gangsters who controlled much of the criminal street business in New York, New York and some of the police and politicians of that time. Members of one DTE group started as a New York street gang, received military training and experience in Mexico during the Mexican-American War, and were released from active duty in the newly-named city of San Francisco, just before the Gold Rush of 1848. The issues of MTGMs today tend to mirror those in history, indicating that a solution to the problem is elusive, perhaps even unattainable.Survey results regarding the perception of MTGM presence in the Western United States are included, as are the results of the most recent Gang and Domestic Extremist Activity Threat Assessment (GDEATA) by the U.S. Army and the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s (FBI) National Gang Intelligence Center (NGIC). The connection of street gangs, OMGs, and DTEs to the military was examined, as were possible remedies for limiting the dangerousness of those criminals in the community. The note is intended to promote the awareness of the MTGM situation and encourage scholars and practitioners to conduct research concerning this issue in other locations in the United States and foreign nations towards identifying strategies to control the problem or mitigate the effects. The confluence of gangs and the military presents significant social and security challenges with significant national and global security potentials.

The Role of California and the West Coast in the Development of Military-Trained Gang Members (MTGMs

American Society of Criminology Conference, 2019

Military-trained gang members, whether from Street Gangs, Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs (OMCGs), or Dom... more Military-trained gang members, whether from Street Gangs, Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs (OMCGs), or Domestic Terrorist Extremist (DTE) groups, have endangered our communities since before the birth of the country. Early gang leaders acquired military training before and during the Revolutionary War, and continued their criminal activity in New York, New York and San Francisco, California. The earliest MTGMs included both the river pirates, stealing cargo and attacking passengers along the Mississippi River, and the street gangsters who controlled much of the street business and some of the police and politicians of that time. One such DTE group received military training and experience in Mexico during the Mexican-American War prior to release in San Francisco before the Gold Rush of 1848. This paper will survey the events both historically and recently that have contributed to the presence and dangerousness of gangs and the military. Survey results regarding the perception of MTGM presence in the Western United States are included, as are the results of the most recent Gang and Domestic Extremist Activity Threat Assessment (GDEATA) by the U.S. Army and the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s (FBI) National Gang Intelligence Center (NGIC). The connection of the state's current street gangs, OMCGs, and DTEs to the military will be examined, as will possible remedies for limiting the dangerousness of those criminals in the community. Excerpts from the author’s book Gangs and the Military: Gangsters, Bikers, and Terrorists with Military Training are included in this paper.

The Role of California and the West Coast in the Development of Military-Trained Gang Members (MTGMs

GANGS AND THE MILITARY NOTE 2: MILITARY-TRAINED GANG MEMBERS AS CRIMINAL INSURGENTS

Small Wars Journal, 2018

Military-trained gang members (MTGMs) have received military training such as tactics, weapons, e... more Military-trained gang members (MTGMs) have received military training such as tactics, weapons, explosives, or equipment, and the use of distinctive military skills. Gangs with military-trained members often pose an ongoing and persistent military and political threat. At least one-tenth of one percent of the U.S. population is an MTGM, and there are between 150,000 and 500,000 MTGMs. That number demonstrates an alarming domestic and national security threat that includes a number of potentially significant implications for government leaders in the U.S., and in other countries where third generation (3GEN) Gangs or Drug Trafficking Organizations (DTOs) are prevalent. The intersection of MTGMs and criminal insurgencies threatens national security and communities, undermining the economic and political foundations of local and state government. These criminal organizations often behave like insurgents, engaging in governance to support the illicit marketplace or acting in police or social roles in the community. Counterinsurgency strategies, including cultural awareness should be implemented alongside traditional anti-gang measures.

GANGS AND THE MILITARY NOTE 1: THE INCREASED THREAT OF THIRD GENERATION GANGS WITH MILITARY-TRAINED GANG MEMBERS (3GEN Gangs with MTGMs)

Small Wars Journal, 2018

In an early exploration of the evolution of group violence in its most common form, John Sullivan... more In an early exploration of the evolution of group violence in its most common form, John Sullivan found the beginning indicators of Third Generation (3GEN) Gangs, which pose a significant threat to the safety, security, and future of our communities. 3GEN gangs are highly sophisticated, with goals of political power or financial acquisition. First generation gangs are those considered primarily turf gangs. Some turf gangs evolve into drug gangs or entrepreneurial organizations with a market-orientation, thus filling the second generation. Gangs in the third generation include those with a mix of political and mercenary elements who operate or are at least capable of operating in the global community.
Military-trained gang members (MTGMs) have been identified in every wartime period for the United States, and active duty MTGMs threaten the cohesiveness of military units and undermine the authority of military leadership, using the military to further their criminal organization’s goals. They are a clear threat to military discipline, bringing corrupt influences, an increase in criminal activity, and a threat to military family members on military installations.

The Threat of Street Gangs, Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs, and Domestic Terrorist/Extremist Groups with Military-Trained Members

by Carter F Smith and Joshua Harms

Military-trained gang members (MTGMs) have been identified in every wartime period for the United... more Military-trained gang members (MTGMs) have been identified in every wartime period for the United States—from the Revolutionary War to the current conflicts. MTGMs in the military threaten the cohesiveness of military units and undermine the authority of military leadership. They use the military to further their criminal organization's goals, whether distributing illicit drugs and weapons or recruiting like-minded service members. They are a clear threat to military discipline, bringing corrupt influences, an increase in criminal activity, and a threat to military family members on military installations. They also serve to depreciate the perceived value of the military installation in the civilian community. For communities adjacent to military installations, MTGMs add a level of dangerousness to the criminal community with their warfighter training. They also share the ability to remain undetected by law enforcement or members of the community, which allows their organization to thrive and grow unchecked. It is important to note that when we talk about military-trained gang members, we typically mean not only street gang members but also members of Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs (OMGs) and Domestic Terrorist Extremist (DTE) groups (Smith, 2017).

Volunteer Stress: Examining Job-related Stress and Effects for Gang Officers in Tennessee

Using a sample of gang officers in Tennessee, this study identified the growing effect that stres... more Using a sample of gang officers in Tennessee, this study identified the growing effect that stress brings to police and corrections officers and how it affects their commitment to their organizations. A survey questionnaire including demographic questions and questions regarding the respondent's stress and coping methods was administered. Many respondents reported that unproductive leadership/management styles were the most stressful. The next highest scores involved pay, fellow officers, equipment, favoritism, and recognition. The stressor subgroups were categorized as court related, public related, organizational, work related, exposure to danger, and interpersonal/personal. Respondents experienced organizational stress more than any other, followed by interpersonal/personal stress. Corrections officers generally reported more stress from their organization than police officers, and more overall stress. Officers with college degrees seemed to report more overall stress than their counterparts, particularly organizational stress. Officers with 6-15 years of experience seemed to be affected by stress the most, and female officers reported a higher score on variables related to job security. For potential for transfer or tardiness as a stress response, officers working for the state showed the highest scores. The three most widely adopted coping methods to reduce stress were exercise, recreational activity with family, and religion. A majority of officers said they would participate in activities at a fitness facility, more than half would engage with a stress management program, and about one-third would attend a family support seminar.

Engaging the Learner. Annual Instructional Technology Conference (12th, Murfreesboro, Tennessee, April 1-3, 2007)

Online Submission, Apr 1, 2007

The purpose of this paper was to examine the benefits of supplementing the classroom environment ... more

Youth Crime Prevention Initiatives, United States

Encyclopedia of Victimology and Crime Prevention, 2010

Department of Homeland Security

The Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 2013

Project Safe Neighborhoods

Encyclopedia of Victimology and Crime Prevention, 2010

When is a prison gang not a prison gang: A focused review of prison gang literature

Communities everywhere have experienced the negative effects of street gangs, whose members commi... more Communities everywhere have experienced the negative effects of street gangs, whose members commit crimes, and often end up in prison. Other gangs form in prison, and their influence often extends to the streets. The presence and influence of prison gang members in the community increases the threat of violence to citizens. Research on prison gangs has been conducted regularly since the mid-1980s. At that time, a thorough survey of the U.S. prison gang climate was conducted. That research included a brief reference to the Gypsy Jokers as the first U.S. Prison gang in the Washington State Penitentiary, in 1950. No original source of that information was identified. Since then, a handful of scholars have recited the same information, sometimes identifying the 1985 work, and at other times, identifying secondary sources. The Gypsy Jokers are, and have been, a motorcycle gang, and are considered an Outlaw Motorcycle Gang (OMG) by law enforcement. They have consistently identified their origin in San Francisco, CA, in 1956. They are not, nor have they ever claimed to be, a prison gang, and their first presence in Washington State was in the 1960s. This article was developed with research included in a textbook on gangs that is pending publication (Knox, Gilbertson, Etter, and Smith, 2016).

When is a prison gang not a prison gang: When it’s an Outlaw Motorcycle Gang

Communities everywhere have experienced the negative effects of street gangs, whose members commi... more Communities everywhere have experienced the negative effects of street gangs, whose members commit crimes, and often end up in prison. Other gangs form in prison, and their influence often extends to the streets. The presence and influence of prison gang members in the community increases the threat of violence to citizens. Research on prison gangs has been conducted regularly since the mid-1980s. At that time, a thorough survey of the U.S. prison gang climate was conducted. That research included a brief reference to the Gypsy Jokers as the first U.S. Prison gang in the Washington State Penitentiary, in 1950. No original source of that information was identified. Since then, a handful of scholars have recited the same information, sometimes identifying the 1985 work, and at other times, identifying secondary sources. The Gypsy Jokers are, and have been, a motorcycle gang, and are considered an Outlaw Motorcycle Gang (OMG) by law enforcement. They have consistently identified their origin in San Francisco, CA, in 1956.

They are not, nor have they ever claimed to be, a prison gang, and their first presence in Washington State was in the 1960s. This article was developed with research included in a paper
submitted to the Journal of Gang Research and a textbook on gangs that is pending publication (Knox, Gilbertson, Etter, and Smith, 2016).

Military-Trained Gang Members – Two different perspectives

Communities everywhere have experienced the negative effects of street gangs. The presence of mil... more Communities everywhere have experienced the negative effects of street gangs. The presence of military-trained gang members (MTGMs) in the community increases the threat of violence to citizens. The problem addressed was the growing presence of MTGMs in civilian communities in two locations. The purpose was to determine the perceived presence of MTGMs by two different groups. Gang investigators in Millington, TN and patrol officers in El Paso, TX were surveyed regarding their perceptions of the presence of MTGMs in their communities. Most respondents in both groups indicated that they had seen a recent increase in the number of military-trained personnel associated with gangs. Recommendations for policymakers included identifying gangs and related groups as Security Threat Groups (STGs) to limit the potential for the perception of racial bias in criminal gang investigations. Recommendations for military leaders included acknowledgement of the annual fluctuation in gang-related crime without arbitrarily quantifying the threat level. Recommendations for commanders included treating all drug trafficking cases as if gang members were in some way connected, whether in manufacturing or distribution. This article was developed from a paper submitted to the American Society of Criminology conference (November 2012).

Military-trained gang members in the Volunteer State: Four year follow-up with the investigators

by Carter F Smith and Tae Choo

The presence of military-trained gang members (MTGMs) in the community increases the threat of vi... more The presence of military-trained gang members (MTGMs) in the community increases the threat of violence to citizens. The problem addressed was the growing presence of military-trained gang members in civilian communities in Tennessee. We examined the perceived presence of military-trained gang members of gang investigators at the annual conference and whether there had been changes since the previous survey. Many respondents reported gang members in their jurisdictions were increasingly using military-type weapons or explosives (51%), as well as military-type equipment like body armor, night-vision devices, etc. (30%). Although few (24%) agreed that gang members were using military-type tactics, a majority (over 90%) reported gang members committed home invasions and armed robberies. Many (46%) reported that there were gang members in their jurisdiction currently serving in the military, while 64% reported they had gang members who had served. Most of the respondents (66%) did not believe that military representatives advised their department when gang members were discharged from the military. More of the 2014 respondents than those in 2010 reported gang member use of military weapons, explosives, and equipment. More also reported gang members committed home invasions and armed robberies, and gang members currently in the military in their jurisdictions. Fewer thought their organization had a working relationship with military investigative authorities.

Finding real-world relevance

There is often a conflict between the world of practitioners and the world of academics. After se... more There is often a conflict between the world of practitioners and the world of academics. After several publications and presentations, the lack of a real impact on practitioners was identified. Speaking as a subject matter expert at professional conferences and as a researching academic at others was becoming a chore, as delivery of the same information required significantly different packaging. Having found that relevant expertise led to invitations to speak at practitioner conferences and that surveys are best done in person, the process was revamped. Engagement in both professional and academic conferences provides connections with both worlds. The ability to hand out paper surveys increases the likelihood of a much higher response rate. Higher response rates yield better data and invitations to speak at practitioner conferences have a positive impact on access to research data.

Current and Emerging Trends in the Private Security Industry: The need for Continuing Education and Training of the Security Professional

Gangs and Technology talk for SkyDogCon 2012 with SkyDogCon -

Technology advances have changed the way the average American communicates, plans his or her day,... more Technology advances have changed the way the average American communicates, plans his or her day, shops, drives, and does many other things. Technology has changed the way criminals, specifically gang members, live their lives as well. As gangs evolve, many adopt more of a business model. How does that affect the way law enforcement should investigate them?
You will get an overview of criminal communications options, actions, and interactions followed by a discussion of how law enforcement – mostly gang cops – can and do respond. Ideas on how to engage, assist, or even thwart the detection of such activity will be provided. The use of metaphors to explain how technology functions often helps the not-so-literate grasp the concepts we will discuss – an impromptu brainstorming session on how that works will likely occur.

Forget Internships - Bring Employers and Their Work into the Classroom!

An initial look at an alternative to internships that seeks to provide experience producing repor... more An initial look at an alternative to internships that seeks to provide experience producing reports, networking opportunities, and exposure to the professions studied. This initiative was launched in response to new information regarding DHS employee education preparation, an increased interest in teaching to increase critical and creative thinking, and a limit on available internships. Students engage in individually-graded group assignments, submit and resubmit reviewed work, and selected reports and summaries are identified as able to be submitted to official agencies and organizations.

Domestic Terrorism in the “Next Eleven”

An overview of Domestic Terrorism in the eleven countries having high potential of becoming (with... more An overview of Domestic Terrorism in the eleven countries having high potential of becoming (with Brazil, Russia, India, and China) the world's largest economies in the coming century. The N-11 were identified by Economists for their macroeconomic stability, political maturity, openness of trade and investment policies, and quality of education. How do those factors affect their propensity for domestic terrorism problems?

12 Steps to Identifying Domestic Terrorist Extremists (ID-DT)

The identification process for Domestic Extremists requires considering many indicators. Recently... more The identification process for Domestic Extremists requires considering many indicators. Recently released research indicates examining the mix of behavioral indicators such as personal connections, ideology, travel, and training may prove beneficial in determining the existence of an individual’s extremist views. The presentation suggests using these indicators not as a checklist but as a type of scale to help analysts determine priorities for research and investigation as resources become available.

“How to Qualify and Testify as an Expert Witness on Gangs”

“Gangs and Hi-Tech Communication: How Gang Members Can and Will Communicate Using Tomorrow’s Technology”

“Gangs Invade the Ivory Tower”

“A Threat Analysis of MSTA: Gang, STG, Hate Group, Organized Crime — And More”

“Gang Prevention and Prosecution Strategies for the Next Twenty Years”

“Gangs and the Military: What’s the Problem? Why is it a Problem? What’s the solution?”

Gangs in Child Welfare

Satellite and internet broadcast panel discussion hosted by the Tennessee Center for Child Welfar... more Satellite and internet broadcast panel discussion hosted by the Tennessee Center for Child Welfare (TCCW). The panel will be addressing “Gangs in Child Welfare” on May 18, 2012. Available at the TCCW web site - http://video.tccw.org/video/gangs-child-welfare

•Overview and History of Gangs

•Meaning/Defining gangs

•Street gangs mentioned by Chaucer (1390) and Shakespeare (1602)
–little known of the members
•Generally accepted criteria for identifying groups as gangs:
–Three or more members.
–Members share group identity and other symbols.
–Members view themselves as a gang, and they are recognized by others as a gang.
–Permanence and organization.
–Criminal activity.

•Gang Formation

•Individual needs
–physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem
•Individual responses
–To pressure/Strain
•Community needs
–Security/Economy
•Community responses
–Support/Conceal crime
–Hire/direct Law Enforcement

•Economic association

•Traditional gang organization not unlike traditional business organization
–Fills a void
–Serves community
–Depended upon
•Gangs engage in legitimate business activity.
–Startup funding from ill-gotten gains
–Often use legitimate business to launder money
–Nonetheless, gang businesses serve community

All grown up but still banging: What issues can we expect if they don't "age out?”

The presentation will summarize some of the well-known issues with youth gang members, address ch... more

Anti-Gang Law Rarely Used

Carter F. Smith . . . said it's not surprising that enhanced penalties for gang members have been... more Carter F. Smith . . . said it's not surprising that enhanced penalties for gang members have been used sparingly in Tennessee.

Politicians often propose stricter penalties for gun crimes, gang offenses and hate crimes. The laws might sound good to the public, but in reality, the statutes are rarely used by prosecutors, Smith said.

"Most enhancement penalties are political responses to an outcry from the public," Smith said. "They are a huge waste of time."

Smith said law enforcement could use existing conspiracy laws to crack down on gang activity, noting that the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act was one of the few successful examples of enhancement penalties.

The federal law commonly referred to as RICO provides stiffer penalties for acts performed as part of an ongoing criminal organization.

Gangs and the Military: What’s the Problem? Why is it a Problem? What’s the solution?

Contemporary gangs have been strategically infiltrating military communities around the world sin... more Contemporary gangs have been strategically infiltrating military communities around the world since the late 1980's. When gang members are allowed to join the military, they are treated just like other service members – no debriefings, no watch list, and no warnings to local military law enforcement. Is “Don’t Ask / Don’t Tell” the right policy for gangs in the military? How can we ensure gang members are not able to use military urban warfare tactics on our city streets?

This session will provide an overview of the issues associated with the enlistment of past and present gang members in the U.S. Armed Forces and provide recommendations for local, state and federal law enforcement and communities. We will examine the myths and truths associated with dual (gang and military) service, and discuss recommendations for the communities where these individuals go after they are discharged.

Gangs and Hi-Tech Communication: How Gang Members Can and Will Communicate Using Tomorrow’s Technology

The younger generation in our country cannot remember life without cell phones, CD’s or an email... more The younger generation in our country cannot remember life without cell phones, CD’s or an email address, and many don’t even use CD’s and email anymore. Many gang members are a part of this generation. Do we know how they communicate? As gangs evolve, they take on more of a business model than they had when they started. How does this affect the way we should investigate them? Do we include the right information on our search warrants? Do we know what our crime labs are capable of finding? In this session, we will review the past, examine the present, and look into the future to see how gangs make contact with each other, what they can talk about without us knowing, and why we need to know how to intercept or at least discover what was said after the fact.

A Threat Analysis of MSTA: Gang, STG, Hate Group, Organized Crime — And More

The MSTA has been identified on the top three list of Islamic gangs/STGs operating in the USA. Mo... more The MSTA has been identified on the top three list of Islamic gangs/STGs operating in the USA. Most police encounter them as a gang, but some of their operations have all the earmarks of organized rime. Most in corrections regard them as a local security threat group, but they have been evolving into a national organization. Most in academia regard them as a cult or deviant spiritual group, but their “MSTA university” sells college courses to their prison inmate members today. Come and learn about the MSTA and how it operates in your jurisdiction.

How to Qualify and Testify as an Expert Witness on Gangs

In this session, you will learn the mechanics of how to become an expert witness in gang crime in... more In this session, you will learn the mechanics of how to become an expert witness in gang crime investigation cases. You will learn how to provide an expert opinion on matters such as gang identification, the relevance of gang threats, gang motivation, gang rivalries, and gang trends. You will learn a number of important “do’s” and “don’ts” about expertise from the prosecution perspective, and will see some of the strategies of defense. Whether in court or not, there are many ways to strengthen your credibility and expertise – this session may be the first step in that direction.

Gangs Invade the Ivory Tower

With the growing presence of criminal street gang members in the United States, communities every... more With the growing presence of criminal street gang members in the United States, communities everywhere are experiencing the damaging impact of their criminal behavior. More than one third of the jurisdictions included in the National Youth Gang Survey (NYGS) experienced gang problems in 2007, the highest number since before 2000. A 2009 report by the National Gang Intelligence Center (NGIC) reported the number of gang members in the United States was conservatively estimated at 1,000,000 as of September 2008. Adult gang members represent approximately one of every three gang members, indicating that gangs are evolving into more of an organized crime group as they engage a person’s life past their youth. As these gangs evolve, are they using our nation’s colleges and universities to educate their ranks? This session will examine indicators of problems to come in higher education.

Gang Prevention and Prosecution Strategies for the Next Twenty Years

This session will include an overview of current gang laws and anti-gang activities, including fo... more This session will include an overview of current gang laws and anti-gang activities, including formal anti-gang teams, sections, and task forces, injunctions, and restrictive ordinances. A sampling of activities that can be considered “gang-related” will be discussed. Prosecution strategies will also be examined and evaluated, with the intent of identifying a blueprint for successful prosecution.

Navigating the Tides of History: An 18th-Century American River Pirate Case Study in Contemporary Theoretical Context

The Era of the American River Pirate succeeded the Golden Age of Piracy and occurred on and along... more The Era of the American River Pirate succeeded the Golden Age of Piracy and occurred on and alongside inland waterways like the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. Contemporary theories designed to help explain criminality were used to examine the existence of river piracy and the behavior of river pirates. The analysis was developed while compiling my forthcoming manuscript, Pursuing River Pirates: The Hunt for Sam Mason, pending publication with Bloomsbury (formerly Rowman & Littlefield). Mason served in the French and Indian War, was a Revolutionary War Captain, and chose river piracy as a retirement career in his 50s.

Role of Pennsylvania and Northeast U.S. in the Development of MTGMs

2017 Conference. Paper - American Society of Criminology , 2017

Military-trained gang members have been present since the birth of the United States. In the Nort... more Military-trained gang members have been present since the birth of the United States. In the Northeast U.S., the gangs in early New York quickly acquired military training during the Revolutionary War, and continued their criminal activity in New York and places as far away as San Francisco, CA. Those early military-trained gang members included both the river pirates, stealing cargo and attacking passengers in both in New York City and along the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and land pirates who robbed and attacked travelers on their return trips home. The role of Pennsylvania was crucial to the growth of MTGMs, both as an early home to the emerging Nation's capitol, and as a host to Port

Virtual Poster Competitions

by Carter F Smith and Gregg Etter

In academia, we often tend to teach to the traditional graduate and undergraduate students when w... more In academia, we often tend to teach to the traditional graduate and undergraduate students when we are undertaking traditional academic research projects. The modern university has a wide variety of diverse students who may or may not have the opportunities to participate in traditional academic research projects. Virtual poster competitions foster opportunities for students to showcase their research and participate in academic research opportunities. By encouraging students who might not normally participate in academic research activities to participate the faculty can enhance the overall learning opportunities available for all students.

Street Gangs, Terrorists and Outlaw Bikers: Examining the community threat of organized crime groups with military trained members

by Joshua Harms and Carter F Smith

Communities everywhere have experienced the negative effects of street gangs, domestic terrorists... more Communities everywhere have experienced the negative effects of street gangs, domestic terrorists, and outlaw motorcycle gangs. The presence of these criminals increases the threat of violence to the community. When they have military training, the threat increases significantly. The problem addressed in this study was the growing presence of military-trained gang members in civilian communities. The purpose of the study was to determine the perceived presence of military-trained gang members in jails and community corrections and to examine whether there was a relationship between the perceptions of sheriff’s deputies regarding that presence and a number of variables.

The Bell Curve Meets the S-Curve: The speed of change in learning environments

Adult Learning Theories