It is the quintessential nature of humans to communicate with each other. Good communications, ba... more It is the quintessential nature of humans to communicate with each other. Good communications, bad communications, miscommunications, or no communications at all have driven everything from world events to the most mundane of interactions. At the broadest level, communication entails many registers and modes: verbal, iconographic, symbolic, oral, written, and performed. Relationships and identities – real and fictive – arise from communication, but how and why were they effected and how should they be understood? The papers in this volume address some of the registers and modes of communication in the ancient Near East. Particular focuses are imperial and court communications between rulers and ruled, communications intended for a given community, and those between families and individuals. Topics cover a broad chronological period (3rd millennium BC to 1st millennium AD), and geographic range (Egypt to Israel and Mesopotamia) encapsulating the extraordinarily diverse plurality of human experience. This volume is deliberately inter-disciplinary and cross-cultural, and its broad scope provides wide insights and a holistic understanding of communication applicable today.
For Us, but Not To Us: Essays on Creation, Covenant, and Context in Honor of John H. Walton, 2020
Sense of a Beginning: The Role of Beginnings in the Israelite Historical Résumés | 3 Aubrey Buste... more Sense of a Beginning: The Role of Beginnings in the Israelite Historical Résumés | 3 Aubrey Buster 2. Back to the Beginning: Verbal Syntax and Semantics in Genesis 1:1-3 | 22 John A. Cook 3. Stretching Out the Heavens: The Background and Use of a Creational Metaphor | 37
This article details the way that sociopolitical power was expressed in ancient Israel and how mo... more This article details the way that sociopolitical power was expressed in ancient Israel and how modern scholars have distorted this expression through the application of post-Enlightenment concepts and terminology. As such, ancient Israel's early first millennium BCE polities are studied and articulated in anachronistic terms and concepts (e.g., the "state", "empire", what a "king" is) that find no home in the Bronze or Iron Age Near East (ca. 2000-500 BCE). This disaccord between indigenous concepts of power, terminology related to political structure and leadership roles, and modern discussion of these features has important repercussions for how the biblical text is interpreted, how the archaeological remains from the 11 th-10 th centuries BCE are interpreted, and how text and realia are collocated. This article traces the divergence between modern approaches to ancient Near Eastern sociopolitical structures and indigenous expressions of those same structures to establish a starting point for recalibrating the fierce debate about the historicity of the early Israelite monarchy in the days of Saul, David, and Solomon.
This article argues that many interpretations of the so-called "United Monarchy" of Saul, David, ... more This article argues that many interpretations of the so-called "United Monarchy" of Saul, David, and Solomon are built upon false assumptions and problematic hermeneutics, not to mention that they draw upon anachronistic terminology. This is significant because such issues impact how the history of the early Israelite monarchy is reconstructed, how archaeological materials are related to political organization, and how text and archaeology are integrated. What is needed is a framework for reading the text that is methodologically informed and which draws upon relevant theories. As such this article provides a brief overview of the use of the terms "United Monarchy" and "Davidic/Solomonic Empire" in modern scholarship before turning to recent attempts to theorize and model ancient monarchies, including the ways in which ancient kingdoms controlled territory and how leaders legitimized their power and expressed their authority in a manner that unified their constituencies. From there it re-evaluates the biblical portrayal of the monarchies of Saul, David, and Solomon, considering in particular the nature of early Israel's political and social unity and identity, before turning to the potential archaeological correlates of political power during the reigns of these kings.
This article presents a Proto-Canaanite inscription written in ink on a jug. It was unearthed in ... more This article presents a Proto-Canaanite inscription written in ink on a jug. It was unearthed in 2019 at Khirbet al-Ra'i, located 4 km west of Tel Lachish, in a level dated to the late twelfth or early eleventh century BCE. Only part of the inscription had survived, with five letters indicating the personal name Yrb'l (Jerubba'al). This name also appears in the biblical tradition, more or less in the same era: "[Gideon] from that day was called Yrb'l" (Judg. 6:31-32). This inscription, together with similar inscriptions from Beth-Shemesh and Khirbet Qeiyafa, contributes to a better understanding of the distribution of theophoric names with the element ba'al in the eleventh-tenth centuries BCE in Judah.
The early 10th-century BCE pottery assemblage from Khirbet al-Ra'i is presented. The assemblage, ... more The early 10th-century BCE pottery assemblage from Khirbet al-Ra'i is presented. The assemblage, which came from a few rooms that were suddenly destroyed, offers a large number of complete profiles. This is the second largest pottery assemblage, after that of Khirbet Qeiyafa, of this poorly known ceramic phase.
Strata: The Bulletin of the Anglo-Israel Society, 2019
From 2015-2019 excavations were conducted at the site of Khirbet al-Ra'i, in the Judean Shephelah... more From 2015-2019 excavations were conducted at the site of Khirbet al-Ra'i, in the Judean Shephelah 4 km west of Lachish. Remains from the 12th-10th centuries BCE have been uncovered. In the late 12th and 11th centuries BCE the site appears to be the main site in the region after the fall of Canaanite Lachish. In the early 10th century it was a small village contemporary with the fortified city of Khirbet Qeiyafa.
1 Kings 9:11-14 relates Solomon’s sale of the land of Cabul to Hiram, king of Tyre. Commentaries ... more 1 Kings 9:11-14 relates Solomon’s sale of the land of Cabul to Hiram, king of Tyre. Commentaries and studies on this pericope have dealt with its linguistic and historical aspects without reaching consensus on where this land was, what the term ‘Cabul’ actually means, or even whether these verses preserve an actual historic event from the 10th century BCE. This article addresses these issues through a more systematic presentation of the archaeological remains and geographic realities in the Galilee, and in so doing, offers a more contextually derived understanding of the events recorded in 1 Kgs 9:11-14 than has heretofore been offered.
This article evaluates the historicity of 1 Sam 7:2-17 in light of renewed analysis of the archae... more This article evaluates the historicity of 1 Sam 7:2-17 in light of renewed analysis of the archaeological remains from Tell en-Nasbeh, other Iron Age I sites in the region of Benjamin, broader literary considerations in 1 Sam 1-10, and the geography of the Central Hill Country. In so doing, a case is made that there is far more going on in vv. 6-7 than what appears to be a miscommunication between the Israelites, who have gathered at the site of Mizpah, and the Philistines, who send troops against the Israelites. A historical reconstruction that considers the narrative form of 1 Sam 7:2-17 and the archaeological remains is offered, as is a new proposal for the identification of the site of Gibeath-elohim.
however, we stand at a disadvantage in that we do not share the same cultural or even semiotic sy... more however, we stand at a disadvantage in that we do not share the same cultural or even semiotic systems by which ancient cultures communicated; we as modern scholars do not have a shared context of situation even if we can approximate communication help us to bridge the situational gap.
The excavations at H ˘ irbet Qe ¯yafa provide the first instance in pre-classical Levantine archa... more The excavations at H ˘ irbet Qe ¯yafa provide the first instance in pre-classical Levantine archaeology where every stage of the construction of a settlement is archaeologically attested and contemporaneous: from the quarry to completion. Stones of various sizes and in various stages of extraction were uncovered at the numerous quarries excavated inside the site's wall and provide clear evidence of the quarrying techniques used. One of these techniques is rare and only now can be dated due to the excavations at H ˘ irbet Qe ¯yafa. Stones quarried from within the site then were used in the construction of the settlement's two gateways, casemate wall, and public and private buildings. This article offers a detailed discussion of the quarrying process and then articulates the sequence of H ˘ irbet Qe ¯yafa's construction. It concludes by offering insights emerging from the excavated remains concerning early city planning, resource management, and administrative organization in early Israel / Judah.
Front cover: Khirbet Qeiyafa at the end of the 2013 excavation season (Sky View) Back cover: Iron... more Front cover: Khirbet Qeiyafa at the end of the 2013 excavation season (Sky View) Back cover: Iron Age IIA Cypro-Geometric Bichrome Ware barrel juglet (Clara Amit)
As a result of recent efforts to publish the Bronze and Iron Age remains of Jacob Kaplan’s excava... more As a result of recent efforts to publish the Bronze and Iron Age remains of Jacob Kaplan’s excavations in Jaffa, a rich corpus of ceramics and other artifacts, many from LB IB contexts, has come to light. The Egyptian assemblage from Jaffa provides a clearer picture of the character of the earliest Egyptian settlements in Canaan that are associated with the expansion of the New Kingdom empire. While much ink has been spent on the question of distinguishing Egyptian from Egyptianizing artifacts at Egyptian sites in Late Bronze Age Canaan, evidence from Jaffa suggests that such distinctions are impossible to make. In this context it is preferable to refer, instead, to Egyptian artifacts and assemblages, noting simply whether they are imported or locally produced, and stressing the importance of the context of the assemblage as defined by both textual and archaeological data.
It is the quintessential nature of humans to communicate with each other. Good communications, ba... more It is the quintessential nature of humans to communicate with each other. Good communications, bad communications, miscommunications, or no communications at all have driven everything from world events to the most mundane of interactions. At the broadest level, communication entails many registers and modes: verbal, iconographic, symbolic, oral, written, and performed. Relationships and identities – real and fictive – arise from communication, but how and why were they effected and how should they be understood? The papers in this volume address some of the registers and modes of communication in the ancient Near East. Particular focuses are imperial and court communications between rulers and ruled, communications intended for a given community, and those between families and individuals. Topics cover a broad chronological period (3rd millennium BC to 1st millennium AD), and geographic range (Egypt to Israel and Mesopotamia) encapsulating the extraordinarily diverse plurality of human experience. This volume is deliberately inter-disciplinary and cross-cultural, and its broad scope provides wide insights and a holistic understanding of communication applicable today.
For Us, but Not To Us: Essays on Creation, Covenant, and Context in Honor of John H. Walton, 2020
Sense of a Beginning: The Role of Beginnings in the Israelite Historical Résumés | 3 Aubrey Buste... more Sense of a Beginning: The Role of Beginnings in the Israelite Historical Résumés | 3 Aubrey Buster 2. Back to the Beginning: Verbal Syntax and Semantics in Genesis 1:1-3 | 22 John A. Cook 3. Stretching Out the Heavens: The Background and Use of a Creational Metaphor | 37
This article details the way that sociopolitical power was expressed in ancient Israel and how mo... more This article details the way that sociopolitical power was expressed in ancient Israel and how modern scholars have distorted this expression through the application of post-Enlightenment concepts and terminology. As such, ancient Israel's early first millennium BCE polities are studied and articulated in anachronistic terms and concepts (e.g., the "state", "empire", what a "king" is) that find no home in the Bronze or Iron Age Near East (ca. 2000-500 BCE). This disaccord between indigenous concepts of power, terminology related to political structure and leadership roles, and modern discussion of these features has important repercussions for how the biblical text is interpreted, how the archaeological remains from the 11 th-10 th centuries BCE are interpreted, and how text and realia are collocated. This article traces the divergence between modern approaches to ancient Near Eastern sociopolitical structures and indigenous expressions of those same structures to establish a starting point for recalibrating the fierce debate about the historicity of the early Israelite monarchy in the days of Saul, David, and Solomon.
This article argues that many interpretations of the so-called "United Monarchy" of Saul, David, ... more This article argues that many interpretations of the so-called "United Monarchy" of Saul, David, and Solomon are built upon false assumptions and problematic hermeneutics, not to mention that they draw upon anachronistic terminology. This is significant because such issues impact how the history of the early Israelite monarchy is reconstructed, how archaeological materials are related to political organization, and how text and archaeology are integrated. What is needed is a framework for reading the text that is methodologically informed and which draws upon relevant theories. As such this article provides a brief overview of the use of the terms "United Monarchy" and "Davidic/Solomonic Empire" in modern scholarship before turning to recent attempts to theorize and model ancient monarchies, including the ways in which ancient kingdoms controlled territory and how leaders legitimized their power and expressed their authority in a manner that unified their constituencies. From there it re-evaluates the biblical portrayal of the monarchies of Saul, David, and Solomon, considering in particular the nature of early Israel's political and social unity and identity, before turning to the potential archaeological correlates of political power during the reigns of these kings.
This article presents a Proto-Canaanite inscription written in ink on a jug. It was unearthed in ... more This article presents a Proto-Canaanite inscription written in ink on a jug. It was unearthed in 2019 at Khirbet al-Ra'i, located 4 km west of Tel Lachish, in a level dated to the late twelfth or early eleventh century BCE. Only part of the inscription had survived, with five letters indicating the personal name Yrb'l (Jerubba'al). This name also appears in the biblical tradition, more or less in the same era: "[Gideon] from that day was called Yrb'l" (Judg. 6:31-32). This inscription, together with similar inscriptions from Beth-Shemesh and Khirbet Qeiyafa, contributes to a better understanding of the distribution of theophoric names with the element ba'al in the eleventh-tenth centuries BCE in Judah.
The early 10th-century BCE pottery assemblage from Khirbet al-Ra'i is presented. The assemblage, ... more The early 10th-century BCE pottery assemblage from Khirbet al-Ra'i is presented. The assemblage, which came from a few rooms that were suddenly destroyed, offers a large number of complete profiles. This is the second largest pottery assemblage, after that of Khirbet Qeiyafa, of this poorly known ceramic phase.
Strata: The Bulletin of the Anglo-Israel Society, 2019
From 2015-2019 excavations were conducted at the site of Khirbet al-Ra'i, in the Judean Shephelah... more From 2015-2019 excavations were conducted at the site of Khirbet al-Ra'i, in the Judean Shephelah 4 km west of Lachish. Remains from the 12th-10th centuries BCE have been uncovered. In the late 12th and 11th centuries BCE the site appears to be the main site in the region after the fall of Canaanite Lachish. In the early 10th century it was a small village contemporary with the fortified city of Khirbet Qeiyafa.
1 Kings 9:11-14 relates Solomon’s sale of the land of Cabul to Hiram, king of Tyre. Commentaries ... more 1 Kings 9:11-14 relates Solomon’s sale of the land of Cabul to Hiram, king of Tyre. Commentaries and studies on this pericope have dealt with its linguistic and historical aspects without reaching consensus on where this land was, what the term ‘Cabul’ actually means, or even whether these verses preserve an actual historic event from the 10th century BCE. This article addresses these issues through a more systematic presentation of the archaeological remains and geographic realities in the Galilee, and in so doing, offers a more contextually derived understanding of the events recorded in 1 Kgs 9:11-14 than has heretofore been offered.
This article evaluates the historicity of 1 Sam 7:2-17 in light of renewed analysis of the archae... more This article evaluates the historicity of 1 Sam 7:2-17 in light of renewed analysis of the archaeological remains from Tell en-Nasbeh, other Iron Age I sites in the region of Benjamin, broader literary considerations in 1 Sam 1-10, and the geography of the Central Hill Country. In so doing, a case is made that there is far more going on in vv. 6-7 than what appears to be a miscommunication between the Israelites, who have gathered at the site of Mizpah, and the Philistines, who send troops against the Israelites. A historical reconstruction that considers the narrative form of 1 Sam 7:2-17 and the archaeological remains is offered, as is a new proposal for the identification of the site of Gibeath-elohim.
however, we stand at a disadvantage in that we do not share the same cultural or even semiotic sy... more however, we stand at a disadvantage in that we do not share the same cultural or even semiotic systems by which ancient cultures communicated; we as modern scholars do not have a shared context of situation even if we can approximate communication help us to bridge the situational gap.
The excavations at H ˘ irbet Qe ¯yafa provide the first instance in pre-classical Levantine archa... more The excavations at H ˘ irbet Qe ¯yafa provide the first instance in pre-classical Levantine archaeology where every stage of the construction of a settlement is archaeologically attested and contemporaneous: from the quarry to completion. Stones of various sizes and in various stages of extraction were uncovered at the numerous quarries excavated inside the site's wall and provide clear evidence of the quarrying techniques used. One of these techniques is rare and only now can be dated due to the excavations at H ˘ irbet Qe ¯yafa. Stones quarried from within the site then were used in the construction of the settlement's two gateways, casemate wall, and public and private buildings. This article offers a detailed discussion of the quarrying process and then articulates the sequence of H ˘ irbet Qe ¯yafa's construction. It concludes by offering insights emerging from the excavated remains concerning early city planning, resource management, and administrative organization in early Israel / Judah.
Front cover: Khirbet Qeiyafa at the end of the 2013 excavation season (Sky View) Back cover: Iron... more Front cover: Khirbet Qeiyafa at the end of the 2013 excavation season (Sky View) Back cover: Iron Age IIA Cypro-Geometric Bichrome Ware barrel juglet (Clara Amit)
As a result of recent efforts to publish the Bronze and Iron Age remains of Jacob Kaplan’s excava... more As a result of recent efforts to publish the Bronze and Iron Age remains of Jacob Kaplan’s excavations in Jaffa, a rich corpus of ceramics and other artifacts, many from LB IB contexts, has come to light. The Egyptian assemblage from Jaffa provides a clearer picture of the character of the earliest Egyptian settlements in Canaan that are associated with the expansion of the New Kingdom empire. While much ink has been spent on the question of distinguishing Egyptian from Egyptianizing artifacts at Egyptian sites in Late Bronze Age Canaan, evidence from Jaffa suggests that such distinctions are impossible to make. In this context it is preferable to refer, instead, to Egyptian artifacts and assemblages, noting simply whether they are imported or locally produced, and stressing the importance of the context of the assemblage as defined by both textual and archaeological data.
An integral part of the mandate of the Jaffa Cultural Heritage Project, which was founded in earl... more An integral part of the mandate of the Jaffa Cultural Heritage Project, which was founded in early 2007 by Aaron Burke (UCLA) and Martin Peilstöcker (IAA), includes the publication of excavations undertaken at Tel Yafo by Jacob Kaplan from 1955 to 1974. In addition to a preliminary volume featuring some of the project’s early findings, two volumes addressing the Bronze and Iron Age remains from Kaplan’s excavations on the ancient tell are currently in preparation. The first volume will focus on the 1955 to 1969 excavation seasons in Area A and include the excavations of Areas B, D, G, F, and Y, while the second volume will treat the 1970 to 1974 excavations in Area A. These volumes are complimented by additional studies of Kaplan’s excavations including the Persian to Byzantine periods by Orit Tsuf and the Medieval ceramics by Katherine S. Burke. The Kaplan Publication Project is partly funded by the Shelby White-Leon Levy Program for Archaeological Publications.
At the end of the eighth century BC the Judean king Hezekiah began making preparations for a rebe... more At the end of the eighth century BC the Judean king Hezekiah began making preparations for a rebellion against the Assyrian Empire. These preparations, it has been argued, appear today in the archaeological record in the form of the lmlk jars, which presumably contained rations for government officials stationed throughout Judah. In addition to providing rations, it is generally assumed that Hezekiah also created a comprehensive nationwide defensive network meant to protect his kingdom. Such a network, however, has never been explicated fully, rather discussions have focused on individual tells, fortresses, or specific regions. That no full discussion of Hezekiah’s defensive network has appeared is related to the available data; many sites have only been surveyed or are not preserved in the archaeological record. Further, it is not always possible to date a site to the reign of a specific monarch, even Hezekiah. However, when multiple variables are considered together, such as, ceramic forms, the presence of lmlk impressions, the presence of destruction layers, and the geographical context of a site, the attribution of a given site to the period of Hezekiah becomes more feasible. Despite limitations, this paper argues that a comprehensive assessment of Hezekiah’s defensive network can be made when all the available archaeological data is viewed through an historical geographic lens. Geography dictated everything in Judah, and when military considerations are juxtaposed with geographical realities and the material culture, the function of individual sites and the larger defensive network in general can be clarified.
In 1960 and 1961 Jacob Kaplan excavated portions of what he identified as the Bronze and Iron Age... more In 1960 and 1961 Jacob Kaplan excavated portions of what he identified as the Bronze and Iron Age fortifications at Jaffa. He first identified the fortifications in Area B where he uncovered a stone and mudbrick glacis running north-south. He initially dated it to the ninth century BC but later lowered it to the eighth. In an attempt to illuminate the earlier fortifications of the site Kaplan opened up two more areas (D and F) to the west of Area B, where he found the upper section of a rampart that he dated to the Middle Bronze Age. To date, however, little has been written on these fortifications and no plans have been published. This paper presents a preliminary study of these fortifications based on work conducted by the Jaffa Cultural Heritage Project during 2007 and 2008, evaluating Kaplan’s interpretations and discussing the fortifications of Jaffa in their cultural setting.
This paper considers the geographical setting of Khirbet Qeiyafa in an effort to understand the s... more This paper considers the geographical setting of Khirbet Qeiyafa in an effort to understand the site's function and the rationale for its location. Questions specifically concerning the site's strategic potential are posed in light of its occupational history during the Iron I to Iron IIA transition in the southern Levant.
This article will discuss the varying strategies for defense in the kingdoms of Israel and Judah ... more This article will discuss the varying strategies for defense in the kingdoms of Israel and Judah in light of the topographical realities and changing political situation over the course of the Iron II. In the end, historical geographical considerations will also be assessed for the period of the so-called United Monarchy in order to evaluate its potential defense network.
In this refreshing, nuanced, and theoretically informed study on imperialism, Bleda Düring focuse... more In this refreshing, nuanced, and theoretically informed study on imperialism, Bleda Düring focuses on answering the question, "How can we explain the success of the (Middle) Assyrian Empire?" For Düring, the Neo-Assyrian Empire should be understood as a continuation of an imperial entity that arose already in the Middle Assyrian period. The main reason Assyrian imperialism writ largely succeeded and we see the establishment of Middle and Neo-Assyrian Empires is because the Assyrians created a successful participatory system that incentivized Assyrian and non-Assyrian peoples alike to partake in the imperial project (153). Düring articulates how this system worked and what it looked like archaeologically. In fact, it is his careful analysis of the archaeological remains-coupled with practical considerations often lacking in archaeological studies and supplemented with textual sources-that sets Düring's study apart from previous discussions of Assyrian imperialism. Significantly, Düring delves into political theory and defines what he actually means by empire, something that is all too often neglected in studies of the ancient Near East but that is an entirely necessary starting point for discussion of an amorphous political term.
in God's speech are not metaphorical, but literal descriptions that do not imagine people as anim... more in God's speech are not metaphorical, but literal descriptions that do not imagine people as animals. Indeed, the speech serves to challenge the anthropocentrism of Job and his friends. While Eliphaz (4:10-11) and Job (10:16) present God as a hunter of predatory lions (wicked), God claims to care for the lion and thereby undercuts the metaphorical use of lions for wicked people. Similarly, God challenges the metaphorical use of the wild donkeys as neglected and desperate creatures resembling outcasts from human society (24:4-8; 30:3-8), because God construes the animal as free and self-reliant (39:5-8). If God's speech originally followed Job 31, then the coherence around the wild donkey topic would be much closer together and more perceptible. A brief conclusion summarizes the ma or findings of the study.
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