The effects ofdirect and indirect feedback on second language (L2) writing have especially receiv... more The effects ofdirect and indirect feedback on second language (L2) writing have especially received attention from researchers in the field ofsecond lariguage acquisition (SLA). With both direct and indirect feedback on all errors made by students being unniistakably a large burden on teachers' time and energyi there is a pedagogica] importance of investigating the effects of grammar explanation as opposed to providing such feedback. For this reason, the current research airns to look at the effect grammar explanation has on students' accuracy in English composition writing. Using a pretest-treatment-posttest research design with 1 1 1 Japanese university students of English as a fbreign lariguage (EFL), we cornpared effectiveness of direct feedback and grarnrriar explanation on explicit understanding of past hypothetical conditionals in English. Results show (a) irnprovement was seen from the pretest to the posttest, regardless of the group participants belonged to, and fo) there were no salient differences in how much each group improved. These results are discussed with reference to theories and empirical evidence in SLA, Limitations, future directions, and some pedagogical implications are also discussed. JapanSociety ofEnglish Language Education
wnat kind of knowledge second language a2) learners draw on when perfbrming a grammaticality judg... more wnat kind of knowledge second language a2) learners draw on when perfbrming a grammaticality judgment task (GJT) has been a matter ef cominuing debate in second language acquisition (SLA) research, Previous research has shown that there is a relationship between the type of knowledge (i.e., implicit or explicit) and L2 proficiency levels. Howeveg the type ofL2 acquisition processes involved in Grlls (e,g,, semantic processing, noticing, and metalinguistic reflection) has not been explored. This paper reports the results of a study with 160 Japanese EF[[. (English as a Foreign Language) learners, and examines how the type ofL2 knowledge, the type ofL2 acquisition process, and the level ofL2 proficiency interact in a GJT. Interactions were fbund between the type ofknowledge, proficiency levels, and process types. research, two types ofL2 knowledge, explicit and implicit knowledge, have been discussed for almost three decades. Explicit knowledge refers to "knowledge oflanguage about which Users are consciously aware" (R, Ellis, 2004, p. 229), while implicit knowledge is used `Cwithout attention to the rule or even an ability to state it" (BialystoK 1979, p, 82). SLA research has shown that L2 instruction should aim at developing both explicit and implicit knowledge, giving priority to implicit knovvledge (N. Ellis, 2005), Howeveg the relationship between the two types li
There is now growing evidence that output promotes second language acquisition. Recently, interes... more There is now growing evidence that output promotes second language acquisition. Recently, interest has been shown in examining (a) the effect of output processing on subsequent input processing, and (b) what factors mediate that effect. An experiment was conducted for two proficiency levels of Japanese learners of English under two conditions (output and non-output). First, participants in the output condition wrote a story in English based on four cartoon pictures (output task processing). Second, participants in both conditions read a model story describing the four cartoon pictures (subsequent input processing). Third, both sets of participants were asked, without any advance notice, to recall what they had read (written free recall test). Performance on the written free recall test suggests that (a) output tasks facilitated subsequent input processing, and (b) complex relationships existed among L2 proficiency levels, experiment conditions, and linguistic domains during subseque...
Humans learn languages in real-life situations by integrating multiple signals, including linguis... more Humans learn languages in real-life situations by integrating multiple signals, including linguistic forms, their meanings, and the actions and intentions of speakers. However, little is known about the neural bases underlying the social learning of a second language (L2) in adults. In this study, 36 adults were asked to learn two sets of L2 spoken words through translation versus simulated social interactive videos (social learning). Brain activation during word learning was measured using fMRI. Greater activation was observed in the bilateral superior temporal sulcus, posterior middle temporal gyri, and right inferior parietal lobule during social learning as compared with translation learning. Furthermore, higher activity in the right temporal parietal junction, right hippocampus, and motor areas was observed during the initial stage of social learning, with the more successful performance being at the time of overnight testing. We argue that social learning may strengthen the link from new L2 forms to rich L2 semantic representations wherein memory properties are embodied, multimodal, and richly contextualized.
In second language acquisition (SLA) research, two types of second language (L2) knowledge, expli... more In second language acquisition (SLA) research, two types of second language (L2) knowledge, explicit and implicit, have been discussed for almost three decades. Although many SLA researchers agree that L2 instruction should give priority to implicit knowledge, ...
In this article we explore the process and product of languaging as it concerns the learning of t... more In this article we explore the process and product of languaging as it concerns the learning of the grammatical concept of voice (active, passive, and middle) in French. We examine and analyze the amount and type of languaging produced by a small sample of university students as they struggle to understand the concept of voice. Students who are high languagers learn about the grammatical concept of voice in French with greater depth of understanding than low languagers. We demonstrate that there is a relationship between the quality and quantity of languaging and performance as measured by immediate and delayed posttest stages. These findings suggest that languaging is a key component in the internalization process of second language grammatical concepts. Implications of our research for pedagogy are briefly considered. WHEN CONFRONTED WITH A COMPLEX task, we may find ourselves talking aloud or whispering to ourselves, or explaining it to someone else (all are examples of "languaging"). Why? Because as Vygotsky (1987) argued, language is one of the most important mediating tools of the mind. Languaging completes our thoughts/cognition/ideas and transforms them into artifacts that allow for further contemplation, which, in turn, transforms thought. While speaking (or writing), a new or deeper understanding may be achieved (O'Connell, 1988). In this article, we make the case that languaging is an
In this study we compared the effects of two types of form-focused instruction (FFI) on second la... more In this study we compared the effects of two types of form-focused instruction (FFI) on second language (L2) learning and their potential contributions to the development of different types of L2 knowledge. Both types of instruction were pre-emptive in nature, that is planned and teacher generated. In Integrated FFI attention to form was embedded within communicative practice; in Isolated FFI it was separated from communicative practice. Two groups of adult learners of English as a second language (ESL) received 12 hours of Integrated or Isolated FFI on the ‘passive’ construction. Learners’ progress on a written grammar test and an oral communication task indicated no significant differences between the instructional groups over time. However, some advantages were observed for Integrated FFI on the oral production task and for Isolated FFI on the written grammar test. The results are discussed in relation to instructed second language acquisition (SLA) research an transfer appropria...
The study compared the effects of two types of form-focused written feedbackdirect corrective fee... more The study compared the effects of two types of form-focused written feedbackdirect corrective feedback (DCF) and metalinguistic explanation (ME) given to the whole classon Japanese university students' accuracy of use of two grammatical structures: indefinite article and the hypothetical conditional. Both types of feedback were given with and without an opportunity to rewrite. Accuracy of use was measured in new pieces of writing. The feedback led to increased accuracy for the hypothetical conditional but not for the indefinite article. The effectiveness of the DCF proved longer lasting than the ME. Also, providing opportunity for revision enhanced the effect of the feedback. Overall, DCF followed by revision proved the most effective type of feedback. The results suggest that when form-focused written feedback is directed at two features that vary in saliency and complexity, learners are likely to focus on the structure that contributes more to the "global" meaning of the text. The results also indicate that directly correcting the errors learners make with respect to a complex syntactical structure is more beneficial than giving them a metalinguistic explanation.
This review surveys theoretical and empirical evidence about elicited imitation (EI) as a measure... more This review surveys theoretical and empirical evidence about elicited imitation (EI) as a measure of second language (L2) learners' performance. Different from natural imitation, where children repeat utterances without request in a natural setting, EI requires participants to hear and then repeat a sentence that usually includes a target grammatical structure in a laboratory setting. EI is assumed to be reconstructive; that is, during EI, participants go through cognitive processes such as (a) processing a stimulus sentence, (b) reconstructing it with their own grammar, and (c) reproducing it. Additional evidence that EI is reconstructive and not rote repetition is that speakers who have internalized the target structures spontaneously correct ungrammatical EI stimuli (e.g.
Communicative speech is a type of language use that involves goal-directed action targeted at ano... more Communicative speech is a type of language use that involves goal-directed action targeted at another person based on social interactive knowledge. Previous studies regarding one's first language (L1) have treated the theory of mind system, which is associated with understanding others, and the sensorimotor system, which is associated with action simulation, as important contributors to communication. However, little is known about the neural basis of communication in a second language (L2), which is limited in terms of its use as a communication tool. In this fMRI study, we manipulated the type of speech (i.e., communication vs. description) and the type of language (L1 vs. L2) to identify the specific brain areas involved in L2 communication. We also attempted to examine how the cortical mechanisms underlying L2 speech production are influenced by oral proficiency and anxiety regarding L2. Thirty native Japanese speakers who had learned English as an L2, performed communicative and descriptive speech-production tasks in both L1 and L2 while undergoing fMRI scanning. We found that the only the L2 communication task recruited the left posterior supramarginal gyrus (pSMG), which may be associated with the action simulation or prediction involved in generating goal-directed actions. Furthermore, the neural mechanisms underlying L2 communication, but not L2 description, were sensitive to both oral proficiency and anxiety levels; (a) activation in the left middle temporal gyrus (MTG) increased as oral proficiency levels increased, and (b) activation in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), including the left insula, decreased as L2 anxiety levels increased. These results reflect the successful retrieval of lexical information in a pragmatic context and an inability to monitor social behaviors due to anxiety. Taken together, the present results suggest that L2 communication relies on social skills and is mediated by anxiety and oral proficiency.
This study examines the interactional effect of written corrective feedback (WCF) explicitness an... more This study examines the interactional effect of written corrective feedback (WCF) explicitness and type of target structure on the accuracy of students’ revision and new pieces of writing. A total of 88 Japanese university students of English were assigned to four groups, each receiving either direct or indirect corrective feedback that differed in its degree of feedback explicitness: Direct corrective feedback with metalinguistic explanation (DCF+ME), direct corrective feedback only (DCF), indirect corrective feedback with metalinguistic explanation (ICF+ME), and indirect corrective feedback only (ICF). The target structures were the English indefinite article and the past perfect tense. While both types of WCF enabled the learners to improve the accuracy of both target structures in revision, a significant improvement from the first writing to the new writing was only found for the past perfect. A significant effect was partially found of WCF explicitness on learner revision for the past perfect, but not on new pieces of writing regardless of the type of target structures.
The effects ofdirect and indirect feedback on second language (L2) writing have especially receiv... more The effects ofdirect and indirect feedback on second language (L2) writing have especially received attention from researchers in the field ofsecond lariguage acquisition (SLA). With both direct and indirect feedback on all errors made by students being unniistakably a large burden on teachers' time and energyi there is a pedagogica] importance of investigating the effects of grammar explanation as opposed to providing such feedback. For this reason, the current research airns to look at the effect grammar explanation has on students' accuracy in English composition writing. Using a pretest-treatment-posttest research design with 1 1 1 Japanese university students of English as a fbreign lariguage (EFL), we cornpared effectiveness of direct feedback and grarnrriar explanation on explicit understanding of past hypothetical conditionals in English. Results show (a) irnprovement was seen from the pretest to the posttest, regardless of the group participants belonged to, and fo) there were no salient differences in how much each group improved. These results are discussed with reference to theories and empirical evidence in SLA, Limitations, future directions, and some pedagogical implications are also discussed. JapanSociety ofEnglish Language Education
wnat kind of knowledge second language a2) learners draw on when perfbrming a grammaticality judg... more wnat kind of knowledge second language a2) learners draw on when perfbrming a grammaticality judgment task (GJT) has been a matter ef cominuing debate in second language acquisition (SLA) research, Previous research has shown that there is a relationship between the type of knowledge (i.e., implicit or explicit) and L2 proficiency levels. Howeveg the type ofL2 acquisition processes involved in Grlls (e,g,, semantic processing, noticing, and metalinguistic reflection) has not been explored. This paper reports the results of a study with 160 Japanese EF[[. (English as a Foreign Language) learners, and examines how the type ofL2 knowledge, the type ofL2 acquisition process, and the level ofL2 proficiency interact in a GJT. Interactions were fbund between the type ofknowledge, proficiency levels, and process types. research, two types ofL2 knowledge, explicit and implicit knowledge, have been discussed for almost three decades. Explicit knowledge refers to "knowledge oflanguage about which Users are consciously aware" (R, Ellis, 2004, p. 229), while implicit knowledge is used `Cwithout attention to the rule or even an ability to state it" (BialystoK 1979, p, 82). SLA research has shown that L2 instruction should aim at developing both explicit and implicit knowledge, giving priority to implicit knovvledge (N. Ellis, 2005), Howeveg the relationship between the two types li
There is now growing evidence that output promotes second language acquisition. Recently, interes... more There is now growing evidence that output promotes second language acquisition. Recently, interest has been shown in examining (a) the effect of output processing on subsequent input processing, and (b) what factors mediate that effect. An experiment was conducted for two proficiency levels of Japanese learners of English under two conditions (output and non-output). First, participants in the output condition wrote a story in English based on four cartoon pictures (output task processing). Second, participants in both conditions read a model story describing the four cartoon pictures (subsequent input processing). Third, both sets of participants were asked, without any advance notice, to recall what they had read (written free recall test). Performance on the written free recall test suggests that (a) output tasks facilitated subsequent input processing, and (b) complex relationships existed among L2 proficiency levels, experiment conditions, and linguistic domains during subseque...
Humans learn languages in real-life situations by integrating multiple signals, including linguis... more Humans learn languages in real-life situations by integrating multiple signals, including linguistic forms, their meanings, and the actions and intentions of speakers. However, little is known about the neural bases underlying the social learning of a second language (L2) in adults. In this study, 36 adults were asked to learn two sets of L2 spoken words through translation versus simulated social interactive videos (social learning). Brain activation during word learning was measured using fMRI. Greater activation was observed in the bilateral superior temporal sulcus, posterior middle temporal gyri, and right inferior parietal lobule during social learning as compared with translation learning. Furthermore, higher activity in the right temporal parietal junction, right hippocampus, and motor areas was observed during the initial stage of social learning, with the more successful performance being at the time of overnight testing. We argue that social learning may strengthen the link from new L2 forms to rich L2 semantic representations wherein memory properties are embodied, multimodal, and richly contextualized.
In second language acquisition (SLA) research, two types of second language (L2) knowledge, expli... more In second language acquisition (SLA) research, two types of second language (L2) knowledge, explicit and implicit, have been discussed for almost three decades. Although many SLA researchers agree that L2 instruction should give priority to implicit knowledge, ...
In this article we explore the process and product of languaging as it concerns the learning of t... more In this article we explore the process and product of languaging as it concerns the learning of the grammatical concept of voice (active, passive, and middle) in French. We examine and analyze the amount and type of languaging produced by a small sample of university students as they struggle to understand the concept of voice. Students who are high languagers learn about the grammatical concept of voice in French with greater depth of understanding than low languagers. We demonstrate that there is a relationship between the quality and quantity of languaging and performance as measured by immediate and delayed posttest stages. These findings suggest that languaging is a key component in the internalization process of second language grammatical concepts. Implications of our research for pedagogy are briefly considered. WHEN CONFRONTED WITH A COMPLEX task, we may find ourselves talking aloud or whispering to ourselves, or explaining it to someone else (all are examples of "languaging"). Why? Because as Vygotsky (1987) argued, language is one of the most important mediating tools of the mind. Languaging completes our thoughts/cognition/ideas and transforms them into artifacts that allow for further contemplation, which, in turn, transforms thought. While speaking (or writing), a new or deeper understanding may be achieved (O'Connell, 1988). In this article, we make the case that languaging is an
In this study we compared the effects of two types of form-focused instruction (FFI) on second la... more In this study we compared the effects of two types of form-focused instruction (FFI) on second language (L2) learning and their potential contributions to the development of different types of L2 knowledge. Both types of instruction were pre-emptive in nature, that is planned and teacher generated. In Integrated FFI attention to form was embedded within communicative practice; in Isolated FFI it was separated from communicative practice. Two groups of adult learners of English as a second language (ESL) received 12 hours of Integrated or Isolated FFI on the ‘passive’ construction. Learners’ progress on a written grammar test and an oral communication task indicated no significant differences between the instructional groups over time. However, some advantages were observed for Integrated FFI on the oral production task and for Isolated FFI on the written grammar test. The results are discussed in relation to instructed second language acquisition (SLA) research an transfer appropria...
The study compared the effects of two types of form-focused written feedbackdirect corrective fee... more The study compared the effects of two types of form-focused written feedbackdirect corrective feedback (DCF) and metalinguistic explanation (ME) given to the whole classon Japanese university students' accuracy of use of two grammatical structures: indefinite article and the hypothetical conditional. Both types of feedback were given with and without an opportunity to rewrite. Accuracy of use was measured in new pieces of writing. The feedback led to increased accuracy for the hypothetical conditional but not for the indefinite article. The effectiveness of the DCF proved longer lasting than the ME. Also, providing opportunity for revision enhanced the effect of the feedback. Overall, DCF followed by revision proved the most effective type of feedback. The results suggest that when form-focused written feedback is directed at two features that vary in saliency and complexity, learners are likely to focus on the structure that contributes more to the "global" meaning of the text. The results also indicate that directly correcting the errors learners make with respect to a complex syntactical structure is more beneficial than giving them a metalinguistic explanation.
This review surveys theoretical and empirical evidence about elicited imitation (EI) as a measure... more This review surveys theoretical and empirical evidence about elicited imitation (EI) as a measure of second language (L2) learners' performance. Different from natural imitation, where children repeat utterances without request in a natural setting, EI requires participants to hear and then repeat a sentence that usually includes a target grammatical structure in a laboratory setting. EI is assumed to be reconstructive; that is, during EI, participants go through cognitive processes such as (a) processing a stimulus sentence, (b) reconstructing it with their own grammar, and (c) reproducing it. Additional evidence that EI is reconstructive and not rote repetition is that speakers who have internalized the target structures spontaneously correct ungrammatical EI stimuli (e.g.
Communicative speech is a type of language use that involves goal-directed action targeted at ano... more Communicative speech is a type of language use that involves goal-directed action targeted at another person based on social interactive knowledge. Previous studies regarding one's first language (L1) have treated the theory of mind system, which is associated with understanding others, and the sensorimotor system, which is associated with action simulation, as important contributors to communication. However, little is known about the neural basis of communication in a second language (L2), which is limited in terms of its use as a communication tool. In this fMRI study, we manipulated the type of speech (i.e., communication vs. description) and the type of language (L1 vs. L2) to identify the specific brain areas involved in L2 communication. We also attempted to examine how the cortical mechanisms underlying L2 speech production are influenced by oral proficiency and anxiety regarding L2. Thirty native Japanese speakers who had learned English as an L2, performed communicative and descriptive speech-production tasks in both L1 and L2 while undergoing fMRI scanning. We found that the only the L2 communication task recruited the left posterior supramarginal gyrus (pSMG), which may be associated with the action simulation or prediction involved in generating goal-directed actions. Furthermore, the neural mechanisms underlying L2 communication, but not L2 description, were sensitive to both oral proficiency and anxiety levels; (a) activation in the left middle temporal gyrus (MTG) increased as oral proficiency levels increased, and (b) activation in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), including the left insula, decreased as L2 anxiety levels increased. These results reflect the successful retrieval of lexical information in a pragmatic context and an inability to monitor social behaviors due to anxiety. Taken together, the present results suggest that L2 communication relies on social skills and is mediated by anxiety and oral proficiency.
This study examines the interactional effect of written corrective feedback (WCF) explicitness an... more This study examines the interactional effect of written corrective feedback (WCF) explicitness and type of target structure on the accuracy of students’ revision and new pieces of writing. A total of 88 Japanese university students of English were assigned to four groups, each receiving either direct or indirect corrective feedback that differed in its degree of feedback explicitness: Direct corrective feedback with metalinguistic explanation (DCF+ME), direct corrective feedback only (DCF), indirect corrective feedback with metalinguistic explanation (ICF+ME), and indirect corrective feedback only (ICF). The target structures were the English indefinite article and the past perfect tense. While both types of WCF enabled the learners to improve the accuracy of both target structures in revision, a significant improvement from the first writing to the new writing was only found for the past perfect. A significant effect was partially found of WCF explicitness on learner revision for the past perfect, but not on new pieces of writing regardless of the type of target structures.
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