Papers by Heinz Katschnig
The long-term course of panic disorder—an 11 year follow-up
Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 2003
Background: The purpose of this study was to assess the naturalistic long-term course of panic di... more Background: The purpose of this study was to assess the naturalistic long-term course of panic disorder over a period of 11 years. Method: Thirty DSM-III-R panic disorder patients, who had suffered from panic disorder for 6 years on average and who had taken part in an 8-week multicenter drug trial, were included in the intent-to-follow-up group to be reinterviewed 11
Psychiatry Research-neuroimaging, 1996
The frequency and quality of brain abnormalities in panic disorder (PD) were assessed with magnet... more The frequency and quality of brain abnormalities in panic disorder (PD) were assessed with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The use of electroencephalography (EEG) to detect PD patients with a high probability of morphoiogic brain abnormalities was also explored. Consecutive PD patients (n = 120) were screened with routine EEG examinations and were divided into the following subgroups on the basis of their EEG findings: patients with non-epileptic EEG abnormalities (EEG-A group, n = 28), matched patients with normal EEG results (EEG-N group, n = 28) and matched healthy controls (n = 28). PD patients showed a higher than expected rate of non-epileptic EEG abnormalities (29.2%; 35 of 120). EEG screening was effective in identifying patients with a high probability of morphologic brain abnormalities. MRI abnormalities were found in 60.7% of the EEG-A patients, 17.9% of the EEG-N patients, and only 3.6% of the controls. A high frequency of septo-hippocampal abnormalities was found. Further research should focus on attempts to subtype PD on the basis of neuroanatomic and functional brain abnormalities.
Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 2000
M. Sleep and quality of life in the Austrian population. Acta Neurol Scand 2000: 102: 249±257. # ... more M. Sleep and quality of life in the Austrian population. Acta Neurol Scand 2000: 102: 249±257. # Munksgaard 2000.
Sleeping habits in the Austrian population
Sleep Medicine, 2002
To gain reliable data on sleeping habits and sleep disturbances of the Austrian population. Exact... more To gain reliable data on sleeping habits and sleep disturbances of the Austrian population. Exact data on sleeping habits are of interest in relation to assessment of sleep disturbance-related illnesses and general social processes. A prospective, cross-sectional study was performed with recruitment of a representative sample of 1049 Austrians (aged 15-82 years), according to the Federal Statistics population characteristics. Interviews were conducted in the households of the participants by specially trained interviewers of an institute for empirical research. Men consider their quality of sleep to be significantly better than women (P=0.00234), and younger persons consider their quality of sleep to be significantly better than older persons (P=0.00001). In comparison, women and people over the age of 50 report worse subjective sleep quality, worse sleep efficiency, more difficulty in falling asleep and sleep maintenance, more apneic events, more pathologic limb movements, more daytime dysfunction, and more intake of sleeping medication. Other sociodemographic factors influence sleep reports to a lesser extent. Subjectively disturbed sleep (prevalence in the total population 24.9%), excessive hypnotic drug intake (prevalence 13.0%), and daytime dysfunction (prevalence 17.4%) are a widespread problem, especially in women and older people. With increasing life expectancy in Western societies, the prevalence of sleep disturbances will increase.
Psychiatry Research, 2007
Previous investigations have demonstrated impaired recognition of facial affect and cognitive dys... more Previous investigations have demonstrated impaired recognition of facial affect and cognitive dysfunction in several psychiatric disorders. The specificity of these deficits is still debated. The aim of this study was to investigate the deficits in emotion recognition and cognition in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Forty patients with OCD (DSM-IV, 16 women, 34.7 F 10.4 years) and 40 healthy volunteers (16 women, 34.7 F 8.7 years) were compared. All participants underwent a computerized neuropsychological test battery (, 2001. Computerized neurocognitive scanning: I. Methodology and validation in healthy people. Neuropsychopharmacology 25, 766-776). A German version of the Penn Facial Emotion Acuity Test, the Facial Emotion Intensity Differentiation, including happy, sad and neutral faces, and the Facial Memory Test were administered. Executive functions were assessed by a computerized version of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and attention was evaluated using the Continuous Performance Test. OCD patients performed more poorly than healthy controls in facial memory tests (especially delayed), as well as in attention and executive functions. The only significant difference between the groups in emotion processing was poorer recognition of sad female faces in patients, who misperceived neutral faces as sad. The results point to memory and executive deficits in addition to a bnegativeQ bias in emotion recognition in OCD patients. D
Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 1997
We investigated to see if motion artifacts (MA) occurring in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are... more We investigated to see if motion artifacts (MA) occurring in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are related to prescan anxiety measures and test the feasibility of identifying patients at risk for the development of MA before scanning. Furthermore, to determine a possible influence of constructional differences between a 1.5 and a 0.5 tesla scanner on the frequency of MA. Two hundred and ninety-seven first time MRI patients were surveyed before and after imaging with anxiety and attitude questionnaires. Frequency and impact on diagnostic quality of MA were documented. 12.8% of all scans showed MA not related to normal body pulsations. In 6.4% the diagnostic quality was impaired. Constructional differences did not influence the frequency of MA. Also, anxiety as determined with the most common anxiety measuring instrument was not related to the development of MA. Concern about the technical apparatus identified 70.6% of all individuals developing MA. Patients at risk for the development of MA can be identified prior to scanning. It seems necessary to further develop reliable methods to detect them and to evaluate strategies to prevent MA. 0 1997 Elsevier Science Inc.
Learning by doing: a novel approach to improving general practitioners' diagnostic skills for common mental disorders
Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift, 2007
EINLEITUNG: Zur Verbesserung der Diagnoserate für psychische Störungen bei Patient/inn/en in der ... more EINLEITUNG: Zur Verbesserung der Diagnoserate für psychische Störungen bei Patient/inn/en in der Allgemeinpraxis wurden zwei Wege vorgeschlagen: (1) Die Verwendung von Screening-Instrumenten und (2) eine eingehende psychiatrische Schulung von Allgemeinärzt/inn/en. Das von uns entwickelte Programm geht einen Mittelweg und verbindet eine zeit-ökonomische didaktische Intervention mit dem praktischen Einsatz eines didaktisch-diagnostischen Instruments. Die vorliegende Pilotstudie untersucht die Akzeptanz des Programms und evaluiert den Wissenszuwachs im Hinblick auf 12 psychiatrische (Depressions-, Angst- und Alkoholbezogene) ICD-10 Diagnosen. METHODIK: Die didaktische Intervention bestand aus zwei im Abstand von vier Wochen abgehaltenen, 3-stündigen interaktiven Fortbildungsveranstaltungen. Die teilnehmenden Allgemeinärzt/inn/en waren angehalten, das didaktisch-diagnostische Instrument, ein kurzes Interview namens TRIPS (Training für Interaktives Psychiatrisches Screening – eine gekürzte und adaptierte Fassung von PRIME-MD) zwischen den Sitzungen in ihrer klinischen Praxis einzusetzen. Fünf Wochen nach der zweiten Unterrichtseinheit wurde in einer dritten Sitzung festgestellt, ob der Lernerfolg erhalten geblieben war. Für die Erfassung des Wissenszuwachses wurde ein 15-Item-Fragebogen verwendet. Die Akzeptanz von TRIPS wurde mit einem eigenen Fragebogen erfasst. ERGEBNISSE: 26 der 31 Teilnehmer waren bei allen drei Sitzungen anwesend und wurden in die Auswertung einbezogen. Der Mittelwert richtig beantworteter Fragen wuchs von 5,5 bei der Ersterhebung auf 9,8 bei der zweiten Sitzung (p < 0,05), und auf 11,3 bei der Follow-up-Sitzung. Die Akzeptanz von TRIPS und die Einschätzung als praxisgerecht waren sehr hoch. SCHLUSSFOLGERUNGEN: Das Format der Fortbildungsveranstaltung und der "learning by doing"-Ansatz waren bezüglich der didaktischen Endpunkte erfolgreich. Die Teilnehmer/innen bewerteten TRIPS als geeignet für den Einsatz in der Allgemeinmedizin. INTRODUCTION: Two strategies have been proposed to increase the rather low recognition rate of common mental disorders in primary care: (1) the use of screening instruments and (2) extensive psychiatric training for general practitioners. We have chosen a "middleof-the-road" approach to teach general practitioners by means of a time-saving psychiatric training programme how to make their own psychiatric diagnoses. This pilot study aimed at assessing the acceptance of this programme, its impact on general practitioners' knowledge of 12 ICD-10 disorders – depressive, anxiety and alcohol-related disorders – and the short-term persistence of the knowledge acquired. METHODS: The training programme consisted of two 3-hour sessions four weeks apart. An educational instrument, a short interview named TRIPS (Training for Interactive Psychiatric Screening), a shortened and adapted form of PRIME-MD, was used to train single-handed general practitioners in Vienna, Austria. TRIPS had to be used by the participants in daily practice in between sessions. Five weeks after the second training session a follow-up evaluation was held to assess the persistence of the knowledge acquired. The perceived usefulness of TRIPS was assessed by a short questionnaire. Knowledge was assessed by a separate 15-item questionnaire. RESULTS: Of the 31 participating general practitioners 26 attended all three sessions. There was a significant increase in the mean number of correctly answered questions between baseline (5.5 of 15) and session two (9.8; p < 0.0001), and a further increase between the second and the follow-up session (11.3; p < 0.05). Also, general practitioners rated TRIPS as a practical and useful tool for family practice and stated that its use met with patients' approval. CONCLUSION: The format chosen was successful in its intended educational endpoints. According to participants TRIPS is appropriate for the family practice situation and is accepted by patients.
Facial recognition deficits and cognition in schizophrenia
Schizophrenia Research, 2004
Previous investigations have found impaired recognition of facial affect and cognition in schizop... more Previous investigations have found impaired recognition of facial affect and cognition in schizophrenia. We compared patients with schizophrenia and healthy control volunteers on computerized tasks of emotion recognition, to determine whether emotion processing deficits were correlated with neurocognitive performance. A Computerized Neuropsychological Test Battery (CNP) was administered to 40 patients (25 male, 15 female, mean age+/-S.D. 30.4+/-8.1) with schizophrenia (DSM-IV, 15 first episode and 25 chronically ill patients) treated with atypical neuroleptics and 43 healthy volunteers. A German version of the PENN Facial Discrimination, Differentiation and Memory Test, including happy, sad and neutral faces was used. Additionally, all patients were tested with a standard neuropsychological battery and rated for positive and negative symptoms. Patients with schizophrenia performed worse than control subjects on all emotion recognition tasks (p&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt;0.01). We found higher error rates for discrimination of emotion in happy (p&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt;0.02) and happy female faces (p&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt;0.01), for differentiation of sad versus happy faces (p&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt;0.001) and for facial memory (p&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt;0.04). Poorer performance in emotion discrimination and facial memory correlated with severity of negative symptoms, abstraction-flexibility (p&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt;0.001), verbal memory (p&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt;0.01) and language processing (p&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt;0.001). The study did not reveal a specific deficit for emotion recognition in schizophrenia. These findings lend support to the notion that difficulties in emotion recognition are associated in schizophrenia with key cognitive deficits.
Kognitive Funktionsstörungen bei schizophrenen Psychosen - Medikamentöse und psychologische Behandlungsverfahren
Psychiatrische Praxis, 2001
European Psychiatry, 1998
Is there a pathophysiological and therapeutic link between panic disorder and epilepsy
Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 1995
Relations between panic disorder (PD) and epilepsy (E) have repeatedly been discussed. Three pati... more Relations between panic disorder (PD) and epilepsy (E) have repeatedly been discussed. Three patients with juvenile E who had been free of seizures under anticonvulsant medication for many years and developed PD are presented. Increasing anticonvulsant medication resulted in complete and stable remission of PD. It is hypothesized that, in a subgroup of patients with PD, there is a pathophysiological relation to E. Further research into the usefulness of anticonvulsants in the treatment of PD, especially in 1 therapy-refractory cases, is suggested.
Comprehensive Psychiatry, 1999
Smoking has been discussed both as a risk factor for panic disorder and as a contributing factor ... more Smoking has been discussed both as a risk factor for panic disorder and as a contributing factor to elevated cardiovascular risk in panic disorder patients. Smoking habits and their association with panic disorder were studied in a sample of 102 panic disorder patients. Both for female and for male patients, rates of smokers and of exsmokers were substantially higher than in the general population. However, a surprisingly high number of patients had succeeded in reduc-ing or quitting cigarette smoking because of their panic disorder, although they experienced little benefit in regard to panic symptoms from doing so. We conclude that the motivation for changing smoking habits is high in this population with elevated smoking prevalence and should be taken into consideration by therapists.
Embarrassment about the first panic attack predicts agoraphobia in panic disorder patients
Behaviour Research and Therapy, 1997
In order to find out whether contextual variables of the first panic attack and the person&#3... more In order to find out whether contextual variables of the first panic attack and the person&#39;s reaction to it predict the development of agoraphobia in panic disorder patients, 60 patients with a DSM-III-R diagnosis of panic disorder with agoraphobia and 30 patients suffering from panic disorder without agoraphobia were interviewed about their first panic attack. Single comparisons between groups of agoraphobic and non-agoraphobic patients were carried out and a logistic regression model was applied. Occurrence of the first panic attack in public and the feeling of embarrassment were found to be significantly associated with the development of agoraphobia. It is concluded that eliciting this specific form of social concern at an early stage might help to identify patients at risk for later agoraphobia, which could, in turn, help to further specify early therapeutic interventions and concentrate therapeutic efforts on a high-risk group of panic disorder patients.
Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 2000
Objective: The purpose of this paper is to examine critically results of quality-of-life research... more Objective: The purpose of this paper is to examine critically results of quality-of-life research in schizophrenic patients living in the community. Method: Based on the relevant literature results of speci®c studies are discussed in the light of the methodological problems of assessing quality of life in these people. Results: Subjectively assessed quality of life was found to be higher in the less educated and in female patients, and when a sense of control is experienced. If negative or extrapyramidal symptoms are experienced and stigmatization is perceived, subjective quality of life is reported as being poorer. These results are discussed in view of the additional needs and fewer resources of this population, their stigma-dilemma and their occasional dif®culties in adequately assessing quality of life. Conclusion: It is argued that subjective and quantitative measures of quality of life in schizophrenic patients should be supplemented by external assessment and qualitative methods.
Quality of life in nonorganic and organic sleep disorders: II. Correlation with objective and subjective quality of sleep and awakening
Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift, 2003
Ziel Ziel der Studie war die Bestimmung von Korrelationen zwischen objektiven (Einund Durchschlaf... more Ziel Ziel der Studie war die Bestimmung von Korrelationen zwischen objektiven (Einund Durchschlafverhalten, Schlafarchitektur, Aufwachqualität, Psychophysiologie) und subjektiven Schlaf- und Aufwachqualitätsvariablen einerseits und subjektiver gesundheitsbezogener Lebensqualität andererseits bei 100 schlafgestörten Patienten. Methodik Die Bestimmung der objektiven Variablen erfolgte mittels polysomnographischer Ganznachtschlafaufzeichnungen. Zur Ermittlung der subjektiven gesundheitsbezogenen Lebensqualität wurde der Lebensqualitätsindex (QLI) nach Mezzich und Cohen eingesetzt, welcher den Patienten vor der Adaptationsnacht vorgelegt wurde. Weiters wurde die subjektive und objektive Schlafund Aufwachqualität (psychometrische Untersuchungen) am Abend vor und Morgen nach der Polysomnographie bestimmt. Ergebnisse 63% der Patienten litten an nichtorganischen Schlafstörungen, wobei die nichtorganische Insomnie am häufigsten auftrat, bei 37% waren organische Schlafstörungen, insbesonders Schlafapnoe, diagnostiziert worden. Die subjektive gesundheitsbezogene Lebensqualität zeigte, vor allem bei nichtorganischen Schlafstörungen, eine starke Korrelation mit der subjektiven Schlaf- und Aufwachqualität. Mit den anderen erhobenen Variablen waren nur vereinzelt Korrelationen zu beobachten: So korrelierte in der Gesamtgruppe der Patienten die gesundheitsbezogene Lebensqualität mit dem Schlafstadium 2 und in der Gruppe der nichtorganischen Schlafstörungen mit der Aufmerksamkeitsleistung und psychophysiologischen Parametern (vor allem mit der Pulsfrequenz abends und morgens). Konklusion Unsere Ergebnisse lassen sowohl bei organischen als auch bei nichtorganischen Schlafstörungen nur auf einen geringen Zusammenhang zwischen objektiven Schlafvariablen und subjektiver gesundheitsbezogener Lebensqualität schließen. Die subjektiven Schlafvariablen jedoch zeigten vor allem bei nichtorganischen Schlafstörungen zahlreiche Korrelationen mit der subjektiven gesundheitsbezogenen Lebensqualität. Objective The purpose of this study of 100 patients suffering from sleep-disorders was to determine correlations between their subjective health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and objective variables in sleep initiation and maintenance, sleep architecture, objective quality of awakening, psychophysiological parameters and subjective quality of sleep and awakening. Methods Objective measurements were obtained from overnight diagnostic polysomnography. Subjective HRQoL was determined from the Quality of Life Index (QLI, Mezzich and Cohen) completed prior to the adaptation night. Other measurements included subjective and objective quality of sleep and awakening (psychometry) the evening before and morning after polysomnographic investigations. Results 63% of the patients were suffering from nonorganic and 37% from organic sleep disorders (SDs). Within the first group, nonorganic insomnia predominated; within the second, sleep apnea. Subjective HRQoL correlated well with subjective sleep and awakening quality, especially in nonorganic SDs. There were only a few correlations of objective measurements with subjective HRQoL: in the total group of SD patients HRQoL correlated with sleep stage S2, and in nonorganic SDs with attention scores and psychophysiological measurements (mainly the pulse rate in the evening and morning). Conclusion Our findings suggest only a weak relationship between objective sleep variables and subjective HRQoL in both organic and nonorganic SDs. However, we found various significant correlations of HRQoL with subjective measurements of sleep, especially in nonorganic SDs.
Archives of Womens Mental Health, 2002
Gender differences with regard to specific psychosocial factors were investigated in 100 outpatie... more Gender differences with regard to specific psychosocial factors were investigated in 100 outpatients with the diagnosis of panic disorder (DSM-IV) with and without agoraphobia (78% with agoraphobia). Patients were recruited for a randomized clinical trial of paroxetine alone versus paroxetine plus a specific form of group psychotherapy. Similar to previous results, no significant differences were found on measures of demographic data, symptomatology and comorbidity. However, psychosocial disabilities and interpersonal problems were associated with being female. Family function was more highly impaired in women than in men, and women had a higher rate of catastrophic thinking. Women differed from men in one interpersonal factor, namely being overly expressive.
Human Psychopharmacology-clinical and Experimental, 2005
Study objectiveThe purpose of this study was to determine subjective health-related quality of li... more Study objectiveThe purpose of this study was to determine subjective health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in a sample of the Austrian population over 14 years of age in order to evaluate the effect of socio-demographic variables on HRQoL.The purpose of this study was to determine subjective health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in a sample of the Austrian population over 14 years of age in order to evaluate the effect of socio-demographic variables on HRQoL.Design/SettingHRQoL was determined by means of the quality of life index - German version (QLI-Ge). The influence of socio-demographic variables on HRQoL was assessed by statistical analysis using the Kruskal-Wallis test and an analysis of variance.HRQoL was determined by means of the quality of life index - German version (QLI-Ge). The influence of socio-demographic variables on HRQoL was assessed by statistical analysis using the Kruskal-Wallis test and an analysis of variance.ParticipantsA random-quota procedure was used to get balanced representation from regions and demographic groups of the Austrian population. The sample consisted of 1049 participants, 493 men and 556 women.A random-quota procedure was used to get balanced representation from regions and demographic groups of the Austrian population. The sample consisted of 1049 participants, 493 men and 556 women.Main resultsAge was found to influence the QLI-Ge total score (index score) and most individual items, with increasing age resulting in a decrease in HRQoL. Differences between the sexes were observed in three dimensions: males scored higher in ‘physical well-being’, ‘psychological well-being’ and ‘occupational functioning’. Marital status impacted most items with married persons showing better values than divorced persons or singles. Profession had only a minor effect on HRQoL, the level of education showed no influence at all.Age was found to influence the QLI-Ge total score (index score) and most individual items, with increasing age resulting in a decrease in HRQoL. Differences between the sexes were observed in three dimensions: males scored higher in ‘physical well-being’, ‘psychological well-being’ and ‘occupational functioning’. Marital status impacted most items with married persons showing better values than divorced persons or singles. Profession had only a minor effect on HRQoL, the level of education showed no influence at all.ConclusionsThe socio-demographic variables age, sex and objective living conditions had a major influence on subjectively rated HRQoL, whereas profession and education were found to play a minor role in this context. It is recommended that in the interpretation of studies assessing HRQoL the above-mentioned objective factors be considered. This will be of particular importance when determining the effect of a pharmacotherapy on HRQoL in patients. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.The socio-demographic variables age, sex and objective living conditions had a major influence on subjectively rated HRQoL, whereas profession and education were found to play a minor role in this context. It is recommended that in the interpretation of studies assessing HRQoL the above-mentioned objective factors be considered. This will be of particular importance when determining the effect of a pharmacotherapy on HRQoL in patients. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
P300 event-related potentials and cognitive function in social phobia
Psychiatry Research-neuroimaging, 2004
The aim of the study was to investigate abnormalities of event-related potentials (ERPs) in socia... more The aim of the study was to investigate abnormalities of event-related potentials (ERPs) in social phobia patients indicating deficits in speed and amount of perceptual and cognitive resources as well as relationships between ERPs and cognitive functioning. ERPs were recorded from 19 EEG leads in a two-tone oddball paradigm in medication-free patients with DSM-IV social phobia (n=25) and in age- and sex-matched healthy controls (HC). Neuropsychological test performance was administered. Compared with the HC group, patients with social phobia showed reductions in N1 at temporal leads, N2 and P300 amplitudes, predominantly centroparietally, and longer P300 latencies. The observed P300 latency prolongation was associated with reduced Non-Verbal Learning Test (NVLT) but not the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) scores. The reduction in N1 amplitude indicates an impairment in perceptual processing. The reduced P300 amplitudes may reflect reduced cognitive resources for the evaluation of relevant information. The increased P300 latency, indicating longer stimulus evaluation time, was correlated to deficits in learning processes as measured by the Non-Verbal Learning Test but not to executive function as measured by the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. It may therefore be concluded that social phobia patients show deficits in cognitive information processing as reflected by ERPs.
Quality of life in depression
European Psychiatry, 1997
BMC Psychiatry, 2002
Background: Poor data exist on the influence of psychosocial variables on the female/male ratio o... more Background: Poor data exist on the influence of psychosocial variables on the female/male ratio of depression because of the small number of cases and the resulting limited numbers of variables available for investigation. For this investigation a large number of first admitted depressed patients (N = 2599) was available which offered the unique opportunity to calculate age specific sex ratios for different marital and employment status categories.
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Papers by Heinz Katschnig