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Wai Lau

The University of Manchester, School of Social Sciences, Faculty Member

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I am a Postdoctoral Researcher in Sociology at the University of Manchester (UK). Furthermore, I am a Sociology Teaching Assistant/Instructor at the University of Manchester (UK) and serve as the Managing Editor of Figurations at the Norbert Elias Foundation (NL). I am recognised as a Fellow of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (FRAS) and Fellow of the Royal Historical Society (FRHistS). I am also the author of 'On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations', published by Palgrave Macmillan in 2022, and the recipient of the prestigious Norbert Elias Book Prize 2023 in recognition of my work in the field of sociology and history using Eliasian theories. My research is dedicated to gaining a comprehensive understanding of East Asia. By applying the works of the German Sociologist Norbert Elias and a historical sociological approach, I aim to analyse the long-term psychological and structural developments in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean societies. Currently, my research examines civilising and decivilising processes found in Chinese and Japanese society, contributing to a deeper understanding of the dynamics of these societies and inspiring further research in this field.

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Books by Wai Lau

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations

Palgrave Macmillan, 2022

This book charts the process of civilisation in Japan. Using the theory of civilising processes d... more This book charts the process of civilisation in Japan. Using the theory of civilising processes developed by Norbert Elias, the author examines the complex underlying structural and psychological processes from the seventh century to the twentieth century. Furthermore, by drawing on rich historical data, the author illustrates how these complex processes led the Japanese to see themselves as ‘more civilised’ than their forebears and neighbouring countries. Although the theory serves as an important reference point, the author draws on other works to address different complex questions surrounding Japanese development. Therefore, this book presents three key themes: first, it gives an alternative understanding of the complex developments of Japanese society; second, it intercedes into an ongoing debate about the applicability of Elias’s theory in a non-Western context; and third, it expands Elias’s theory.

Book Parts by Wai Lau

Part I - The Theory of Civilising Processes

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This is the introduction for Part I of the book.

Part II - On the Concepts of ‘Civilisation’ and ‘Culture’ in Japan

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This is the introduction to Part II of the book.

Part III - Towards the Change of Behaviours, Emotions, and Habitus in Japan

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This is the introduction to Part III of the book.

Part IV - Scenes from Life in the Japanese Court Society

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This is the introduction to Part IV of the Book.

Part V - Towards the Process of Pre-Modern and Modern State Formation in Japan

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This is the introduction to Part V of the book.

Book Chapters by Wai Lau

All Manners of Food in Japan: An Overview of the Civilising of Appetite from the Ancient Period to the Modern Period

Towards an Eliasian Understanding of Food in the 21st Century: Established Foundations and New Directions, 2024

This chapter presents an overview of the civilising of appetite as part of expanding the process ... more This chapter presents an overview of the civilising of appetite as part of expanding the process of civilisation in Japan. As one of the most renowned culinary traditions in the world, the Japanese have created a distinct cuisine on a national and international level. Ranging from sushi and tempura to sake wine and matcha tea, these foods satisfied the hunger and palates of the Japanese. Apart from satisfying hunger levels, however, food plays a momentous role in society. Although there are studies that examine the broad developments of Japanese cuisine, more needs to be said about how the Japanese cooked food, what the Japanese ate, and how much the Japanese ate. Examining the civilising of appetite can help illuminate the institutional and individual developments of Japanese relationships to food. Nevertheless, a significant challenge awaits researchers when examining the civilising of appetite in Japan.

A Clash of Habitus: Britain and the COVID-19 Pandemic

The Quest for Justice: Theoretical Insights, Challenges, and Pathways Forward, 2023

Integrating Elias’s concept of civilising offensive and Bourdieu’s concept of habitus, the articl... more Integrating Elias’s concept of civilising offensive and Bourdieu’s concept of habitus, the article contributes to sociological understanding by exploring the transformation in habits of the British population in response to governmental anti-pandemic policies. Drawing on secondary analysis of quantitative data involving the UK Office for National Statistics 2020 Opinions and Lifestyle Surveys mapping the social impact of COVID-19 in Britain, we argue that since the objective conditions of British society have changed under the pandemic as a result of governmental civilising offensive measures imposed top-down onto the population, then habitus has also changed as a consequence of the new social disposition imposed on individuals. Our study finds that the measures enacted by the British government have changed the public and private spheres of individuals in the country, creating a ‘clash of habitus’ in that ‘old’ and ‘new’ dispositions are continuously forming, generating tensions and conflicts. An integrated Bourdieusian and Eliasian analysis permits a nuanced understanding of these changes, seeing them as bound up and produced in correspondence with the broader policy and societal context, interacting with the everyday life that unfolds under anti-pandemic measures in Britain.

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This introductory chapter outlines the purpose of this book. It discusses the key theoretical ten... more This introductory chapter outlines the purpose of this book. It discusses the key theoretical tensions found in the structuralist and culturalist approaches in examining the developments of Japanese civilisation and culture, and how an Eliasian perspective can help resolve those tensions. Furthermore, this chapter highlights how the book differs from existing works about the Japanese historical experience and explains how it builds on them in the pursuit of charting the civilising process in Japan. To conclude, the general structure of the book is presented.

The Concepts of ‘Civilisation’ and ‘Culture’

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter outlines the concept of ‘civilisation’ found in the theory of civilising processes. ... more This chapter outlines the concept of ‘civilisation’ found in the theory of civilising processes. According to Elias, this concept occupies a central position because understanding the development of modern societies is linked to ‘civilisation’. After tracing the development of the concept from the thirteenth century to the eighteenth century, Elias found that ‘civilisation’ is based on a particular habitus. What people experience as ‘civilisation’ in the West differs in various ways because it can present positive or negative connotations, which impacts the behaviours, emotions, and conducts of individuals. Therefore, outlining this concept can help understand how the concept of ‘civilisation’ is formed in Japan that has influenced the behaviours, emotions, and habitus of the Japanese examined later in this book.

Psychogenetic Developments of the Civilising Process

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the psychogenetic developments presented in the theory of civilising proces... more This chapter examines the psychogenetic developments presented in the theory of civilising processes. Through the discussion of how Elias used European ‘manners books’ written between the thirteenth and nineteenth centuries to document the change of behaviours, emotions, and conducts in society, it presents an insight into the diverse components that define the European civilising process from a micro-perspective. Thus, examining the empirical method used can help conceptualise how using relatively similar historical evidence enables the tracing of specific changes in Japanese behaviours, emotions, conducts, and habitus that forms the psychological developments of civilising processes in Japan examined later in this book.

Sociogenetic Developments of the Civilising Process

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the sociogenetic developments presented in the theory of civilising process... more This chapter examines the sociogenetic developments presented in the theory of civilising processes. By discussing how Elias examined various broad processes found in the state formation of Europe from the fifth to twentieth centuries, it presents an understanding of the various components that characterise the European civilising process from a macro-perspective. Therefore, examining various broad processes can help conceptualise how relatively similar processes can lead to specific changes in Japanese behaviours, emotions, conducts, and habitus that forms the sociogenetic developments of civilising processes in Japan examined later in this book.

Criticisms and Counter-Criticisms of the Civilising Process

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter discusses the criticisms and counter-criticisms associated with the theory of civili... more This chapter discusses the criticisms and counter-criticisms associated with the theory of civilising processes. Examining the strengths and weaknesses can help identify the challenges in examining civilising processes in a non-European context. Because there are numerous criticisms and counter-criticisms that vary in scope and size outlined by numerous scholars, a detailed analysis cannot be presented. Instead, the focus is placed on those directly relevant to the current study because they present valuable insights into the theoretical and methodological problems that occur in the examination of civilising processes in Japan.

Japanese Civilisation

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the aspects that distinguish Japanese civilisation from neighbouring civili... more This chapter examines the aspects that distinguish Japanese civilisation from neighbouring civilisations in East Asia. Drawing on the theory of axial civilisation, which are civilisations that developed an overarching framework that influenced other civilisations, and non-axial civilisations, which are civilisations that developed an alternative trajectory, it illustrates how the Japanese have developed a ‘unique’ civilisation not found elsewhere in East Asia. In particular, using this framework to examine their distinct path of development can help understand the peculiarities surrounding Japanese civilisation that have plagued Western scholars for decades. The view into the ‘uniqueness’ of Japanese society, however, has attracted controversial criticisms because of thoughts linked to nihonjinron, which are theories about ‘Japaneseness’. Therefore, to not fall into the nihonjinron ‘ambush’, a discussion is given on a possible way for scholars to navigate past it.

The Dual Lenses of Japanese Civilisation

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the role of the Chinese civilisational lens and the European civilisational... more This chapter examines the role of the Chinese civilisational lens and the European civilisational lens found in Japanese society. Even though other civilisations (e.g., America, India, and Korea) have influenced the development of institutions and ideologies, the Chinese and Europeans have played a central role in pre-modern and modern times. From their inter-civilisational encounters with these two civilisations, the Japanese have assimilated distinct features that characterise their civilisation through the process of selective borrowing, Japanisation, and de-axialisation. Apart from defining various aspects of everyday life, which have transformed the values and practices of the Japanese, they left behind an enduring legacy that is still drawn on centuries later. Subsequently, examining these two civilisational lenses establishes Japan as a civilisation sui generis that has developed a distinct trajectory.

The Japanese Antithesis Between ‘Civilisation’ and ‘Culture’

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter conceptualises the antithesis between ‘civilisation’ and ‘culture’ found in Japanese... more This chapter conceptualises the antithesis between ‘civilisation’ and ‘culture’ found in Japanese society. Like the German antithesis conceptualised by Elias, the Japanese have contended with a relatively similar experience as part of their modernisation process in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. As the need to be on par with the West has captured the imagination of the population during the Meiji period (1868–1912), the rapid modernisation process heavily mobilised certain parts of society into directly learning from the West, but it also mobilised certain parts of society into directly challenging the West. Faced with this complex dilemma, the Japanese have struggled with a crisis of identity brought forth by modernist and traditionalist tendencies that have affected the direction of the country profoundly. Through analysing this antithesis, the chapter addresses how the Japanese came to see themselves as ‘more civilised’ than their forebears and neighbouring countries, which has contributed to the rapid rise of nationalism during the 1920s and 1930s and the breakdown of civilisation in the name of ‘defending’ East Asia from the West in the 1940s.

Medieval Form of the Japanese Tea Ceremony

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the development of the medieval form of the tea ceremony to understand its ... more This chapter examines the development of the medieval form of the tea ceremony to understand its contributions to medieval manners and etiquette as part of the civilising process in Japan. Distinct from the Chinese form, which consists of brewing and drinking tea for medicinal purposes to prolong life, the Japanese form developed by Murata Shukō (1423–1502) during the fifteenth century presents it as a cultural art that emphasises the physical dimensions of personal cultivation. By focusing on this form of the tea ceremony, it discusses how the medieval period’s tea ceremony introduced basic standards of manners and etiquette that have contributed to the formulation of a medieval habitus in the warrior class.

Early Modern Form of the Japanese Tea Ceremony

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the development of the early modern form of the tea ceremony to trace how a... more This chapter examines the development of the early modern form of the tea ceremony to trace how aspects of basic medieval manners and etiquette shifted into complex early modern ones as part of the civilising process in Japan. As opposed to the medieval form that emphasised physical attributes, the early modern form advanced by Sen no Rikyū (1522–1591) during the sixteenth century places importance on the spiritual attributes of personal development. By concentrating on this form of the tea ceremony, it discusses how the refinements made to the tea ceremony during the early modern period transformed it from a simple cultural art form into a complex one that contributed to the change of habitus in the warrior class that later spread into the merchant class.

Modern Form of the Japanese Tea Ceremony

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the development of the modern form of the tea ceremony to trace how aspects... more This chapter examines the development of the modern form of the tea ceremony to trace how aspects of early modern manners and etiquette shifted into modern ones as part of the civilising process in Japan. Unlike the early modern form practised and participated in by men from the warrior and merchant classes, men and women from various classes could practise and participate in the modern form developed by the three main tea schools—Urasenke, Omotesenke, and Mushakōjisenke. Throughout the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the spread of Western values and customs led the three tea schools to adopt and adapt the tea ceremony into a cultural art form capable of resisting the effects of modernisation. Although successful in their task, the tea ceremony represents the ‘Spirit of Japan’ that influenced nationalistic tendencies during the 1920s and 1930s. By examining this form of the tea ceremony, the chapter discusses how the tea ceremony during the modern period occupied an important role in contributing to the change in habitus towards a specific direction in Japanese society.

Scenes of Life in the Imperial Court Society in Kyoto

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the imperial court society and the role the code of miyabi (courtly refinem... more This chapter examines the imperial court society and the role the code of miyabi (courtly refinement) played in aristocratic society as part of the civilising process in Japan. Unlike the warrior court, which centres on a warrior lifestyle for its members, the imperial court created a distinct organisation that concentrated on a civil lifestyle focused on the pursuit of aristocratic art and literature. To study the imperial court, the main emphasis is placed on the imperial court society from the Heian period (794–1185) because this period is known as the ‘age of the court’, which produced major influences on the habitus of the civil aristocracy from clan leaders to aristocrats.

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations

Palgrave Macmillan, 2022

This book charts the process of civilisation in Japan. Using the theory of civilising processes d... more This book charts the process of civilisation in Japan. Using the theory of civilising processes developed by Norbert Elias, the author examines the complex underlying structural and psychological processes from the seventh century to the twentieth century. Furthermore, by drawing on rich historical data, the author illustrates how these complex processes led the Japanese to see themselves as ‘more civilised’ than their forebears and neighbouring countries. Although the theory serves as an important reference point, the author draws on other works to address different complex questions surrounding Japanese development. Therefore, this book presents three key themes: first, it gives an alternative understanding of the complex developments of Japanese society; second, it intercedes into an ongoing debate about the applicability of Elias’s theory in a non-Western context; and third, it expands Elias’s theory.

Part I - The Theory of Civilising Processes

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This is the introduction for Part I of the book.

Part II - On the Concepts of ‘Civilisation’ and ‘Culture’ in Japan

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This is the introduction to Part II of the book.

Part III - Towards the Change of Behaviours, Emotions, and Habitus in Japan

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This is the introduction to Part III of the book.

Part IV - Scenes from Life in the Japanese Court Society

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This is the introduction to Part IV of the Book.

Part V - Towards the Process of Pre-Modern and Modern State Formation in Japan

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This is the introduction to Part V of the book.

All Manners of Food in Japan: An Overview of the Civilising of Appetite from the Ancient Period to the Modern Period

Towards an Eliasian Understanding of Food in the 21st Century: Established Foundations and New Directions, 2024

This chapter presents an overview of the civilising of appetite as part of expanding the process ... more This chapter presents an overview of the civilising of appetite as part of expanding the process of civilisation in Japan. As one of the most renowned culinary traditions in the world, the Japanese have created a distinct cuisine on a national and international level. Ranging from sushi and tempura to sake wine and matcha tea, these foods satisfied the hunger and palates of the Japanese. Apart from satisfying hunger levels, however, food plays a momentous role in society. Although there are studies that examine the broad developments of Japanese cuisine, more needs to be said about how the Japanese cooked food, what the Japanese ate, and how much the Japanese ate. Examining the civilising of appetite can help illuminate the institutional and individual developments of Japanese relationships to food. Nevertheless, a significant challenge awaits researchers when examining the civilising of appetite in Japan.

A Clash of Habitus: Britain and the COVID-19 Pandemic

The Quest for Justice: Theoretical Insights, Challenges, and Pathways Forward, 2023

Integrating Elias’s concept of civilising offensive and Bourdieu’s concept of habitus, the articl... more Integrating Elias’s concept of civilising offensive and Bourdieu’s concept of habitus, the article contributes to sociological understanding by exploring the transformation in habits of the British population in response to governmental anti-pandemic policies. Drawing on secondary analysis of quantitative data involving the UK Office for National Statistics 2020 Opinions and Lifestyle Surveys mapping the social impact of COVID-19 in Britain, we argue that since the objective conditions of British society have changed under the pandemic as a result of governmental civilising offensive measures imposed top-down onto the population, then habitus has also changed as a consequence of the new social disposition imposed on individuals. Our study finds that the measures enacted by the British government have changed the public and private spheres of individuals in the country, creating a ‘clash of habitus’ in that ‘old’ and ‘new’ dispositions are continuously forming, generating tensions and conflicts. An integrated Bourdieusian and Eliasian analysis permits a nuanced understanding of these changes, seeing them as bound up and produced in correspondence with the broader policy and societal context, interacting with the everyday life that unfolds under anti-pandemic measures in Britain.

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This introductory chapter outlines the purpose of this book. It discusses the key theoretical ten... more This introductory chapter outlines the purpose of this book. It discusses the key theoretical tensions found in the structuralist and culturalist approaches in examining the developments of Japanese civilisation and culture, and how an Eliasian perspective can help resolve those tensions. Furthermore, this chapter highlights how the book differs from existing works about the Japanese historical experience and explains how it builds on them in the pursuit of charting the civilising process in Japan. To conclude, the general structure of the book is presented.

The Concepts of ‘Civilisation’ and ‘Culture’

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter outlines the concept of ‘civilisation’ found in the theory of civilising processes. ... more This chapter outlines the concept of ‘civilisation’ found in the theory of civilising processes. According to Elias, this concept occupies a central position because understanding the development of modern societies is linked to ‘civilisation’. After tracing the development of the concept from the thirteenth century to the eighteenth century, Elias found that ‘civilisation’ is based on a particular habitus. What people experience as ‘civilisation’ in the West differs in various ways because it can present positive or negative connotations, which impacts the behaviours, emotions, and conducts of individuals. Therefore, outlining this concept can help understand how the concept of ‘civilisation’ is formed in Japan that has influenced the behaviours, emotions, and habitus of the Japanese examined later in this book.

Psychogenetic Developments of the Civilising Process

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the psychogenetic developments presented in the theory of civilising proces... more This chapter examines the psychogenetic developments presented in the theory of civilising processes. Through the discussion of how Elias used European ‘manners books’ written between the thirteenth and nineteenth centuries to document the change of behaviours, emotions, and conducts in society, it presents an insight into the diverse components that define the European civilising process from a micro-perspective. Thus, examining the empirical method used can help conceptualise how using relatively similar historical evidence enables the tracing of specific changes in Japanese behaviours, emotions, conducts, and habitus that forms the psychological developments of civilising processes in Japan examined later in this book.

Sociogenetic Developments of the Civilising Process

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the sociogenetic developments presented in the theory of civilising process... more This chapter examines the sociogenetic developments presented in the theory of civilising processes. By discussing how Elias examined various broad processes found in the state formation of Europe from the fifth to twentieth centuries, it presents an understanding of the various components that characterise the European civilising process from a macro-perspective. Therefore, examining various broad processes can help conceptualise how relatively similar processes can lead to specific changes in Japanese behaviours, emotions, conducts, and habitus that forms the sociogenetic developments of civilising processes in Japan examined later in this book.

Criticisms and Counter-Criticisms of the Civilising Process

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter discusses the criticisms and counter-criticisms associated with the theory of civili... more This chapter discusses the criticisms and counter-criticisms associated with the theory of civilising processes. Examining the strengths and weaknesses can help identify the challenges in examining civilising processes in a non-European context. Because there are numerous criticisms and counter-criticisms that vary in scope and size outlined by numerous scholars, a detailed analysis cannot be presented. Instead, the focus is placed on those directly relevant to the current study because they present valuable insights into the theoretical and methodological problems that occur in the examination of civilising processes in Japan.

Japanese Civilisation

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the aspects that distinguish Japanese civilisation from neighbouring civili... more This chapter examines the aspects that distinguish Japanese civilisation from neighbouring civilisations in East Asia. Drawing on the theory of axial civilisation, which are civilisations that developed an overarching framework that influenced other civilisations, and non-axial civilisations, which are civilisations that developed an alternative trajectory, it illustrates how the Japanese have developed a ‘unique’ civilisation not found elsewhere in East Asia. In particular, using this framework to examine their distinct path of development can help understand the peculiarities surrounding Japanese civilisation that have plagued Western scholars for decades. The view into the ‘uniqueness’ of Japanese society, however, has attracted controversial criticisms because of thoughts linked to nihonjinron, which are theories about ‘Japaneseness’. Therefore, to not fall into the nihonjinron ‘ambush’, a discussion is given on a possible way for scholars to navigate past it.

The Dual Lenses of Japanese Civilisation

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the role of the Chinese civilisational lens and the European civilisational... more This chapter examines the role of the Chinese civilisational lens and the European civilisational lens found in Japanese society. Even though other civilisations (e.g., America, India, and Korea) have influenced the development of institutions and ideologies, the Chinese and Europeans have played a central role in pre-modern and modern times. From their inter-civilisational encounters with these two civilisations, the Japanese have assimilated distinct features that characterise their civilisation through the process of selective borrowing, Japanisation, and de-axialisation. Apart from defining various aspects of everyday life, which have transformed the values and practices of the Japanese, they left behind an enduring legacy that is still drawn on centuries later. Subsequently, examining these two civilisational lenses establishes Japan as a civilisation sui generis that has developed a distinct trajectory.

The Japanese Antithesis Between ‘Civilisation’ and ‘Culture’

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter conceptualises the antithesis between ‘civilisation’ and ‘culture’ found in Japanese... more This chapter conceptualises the antithesis between ‘civilisation’ and ‘culture’ found in Japanese society. Like the German antithesis conceptualised by Elias, the Japanese have contended with a relatively similar experience as part of their modernisation process in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. As the need to be on par with the West has captured the imagination of the population during the Meiji period (1868–1912), the rapid modernisation process heavily mobilised certain parts of society into directly learning from the West, but it also mobilised certain parts of society into directly challenging the West. Faced with this complex dilemma, the Japanese have struggled with a crisis of identity brought forth by modernist and traditionalist tendencies that have affected the direction of the country profoundly. Through analysing this antithesis, the chapter addresses how the Japanese came to see themselves as ‘more civilised’ than their forebears and neighbouring countries, which has contributed to the rapid rise of nationalism during the 1920s and 1930s and the breakdown of civilisation in the name of ‘defending’ East Asia from the West in the 1940s.

Medieval Form of the Japanese Tea Ceremony

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the development of the medieval form of the tea ceremony to understand its ... more This chapter examines the development of the medieval form of the tea ceremony to understand its contributions to medieval manners and etiquette as part of the civilising process in Japan. Distinct from the Chinese form, which consists of brewing and drinking tea for medicinal purposes to prolong life, the Japanese form developed by Murata Shukō (1423–1502) during the fifteenth century presents it as a cultural art that emphasises the physical dimensions of personal cultivation. By focusing on this form of the tea ceremony, it discusses how the medieval period’s tea ceremony introduced basic standards of manners and etiquette that have contributed to the formulation of a medieval habitus in the warrior class.

Early Modern Form of the Japanese Tea Ceremony

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the development of the early modern form of the tea ceremony to trace how a... more This chapter examines the development of the early modern form of the tea ceremony to trace how aspects of basic medieval manners and etiquette shifted into complex early modern ones as part of the civilising process in Japan. As opposed to the medieval form that emphasised physical attributes, the early modern form advanced by Sen no Rikyū (1522–1591) during the sixteenth century places importance on the spiritual attributes of personal development. By concentrating on this form of the tea ceremony, it discusses how the refinements made to the tea ceremony during the early modern period transformed it from a simple cultural art form into a complex one that contributed to the change of habitus in the warrior class that later spread into the merchant class.

Modern Form of the Japanese Tea Ceremony

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the development of the modern form of the tea ceremony to trace how aspects... more This chapter examines the development of the modern form of the tea ceremony to trace how aspects of early modern manners and etiquette shifted into modern ones as part of the civilising process in Japan. Unlike the early modern form practised and participated in by men from the warrior and merchant classes, men and women from various classes could practise and participate in the modern form developed by the three main tea schools—Urasenke, Omotesenke, and Mushakōjisenke. Throughout the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the spread of Western values and customs led the three tea schools to adopt and adapt the tea ceremony into a cultural art form capable of resisting the effects of modernisation. Although successful in their task, the tea ceremony represents the ‘Spirit of Japan’ that influenced nationalistic tendencies during the 1920s and 1930s. By examining this form of the tea ceremony, the chapter discusses how the tea ceremony during the modern period occupied an important role in contributing to the change in habitus towards a specific direction in Japanese society.

Scenes of Life in the Imperial Court Society in Kyoto

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the imperial court society and the role the code of miyabi (courtly refinem... more This chapter examines the imperial court society and the role the code of miyabi (courtly refinement) played in aristocratic society as part of the civilising process in Japan. Unlike the warrior court, which centres on a warrior lifestyle for its members, the imperial court created a distinct organisation that concentrated on a civil lifestyle focused on the pursuit of aristocratic art and literature. To study the imperial court, the main emphasis is placed on the imperial court society from the Heian period (794–1185) because this period is known as the ‘age of the court’, which produced major influences on the habitus of the civil aristocracy from clan leaders to aristocrats.

Scenes of Life in the Warrior Court Society in Edo

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the warrior court society and the role the code of bushidō (Way of the Warr... more This chapter examines the warrior court society and the role the code of bushidō (Way of the Warrior) played in warrior society as part of the civilising process in Japan. Unlike the imperial court, which is concentrated on a civil lifestyle for its members, the warrior court has formed a distinct organisation that focuses on a warrior lifestyle fixated on the pursuit of military art and literature. To examine the warrior court, the main focus is placed on the warrior court society from the Tokugawa period (1603–1868) because this period is called the ‘age of peace and prosperity’, which has produced significant shifts in the habitus of the military aristocracy from warriors to courtiers.

Warrior State Formation Processes of Japan

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the state formation processes of the warrior state as part of studying the ... more This chapter examines the state formation processes of the warrior state as part of studying the broader changes found in the civilising process of Japan. By examining the warrior state from the Kamakura period (1185–1333) to the Tokugawa period (1603–1868), it explains how sociogenetic changes occurred in warrior society that contributed towards the change in behaviours, emotions, and habitus of the Japanese found earlier in this book. Though there are various explanations to frame the warrior state, such as scholars concluding it is an extension of the imperial state or scholars concluding it is an alternative state formation, the warrior state in Japan is framed as a secondary state that shows characteristics of a ‘successor’ secondary state that has continued the legacy of an existing state. Moreover, using the state formation processes outlined in the theory of civilising processes, it traces how various monopolies of power shifted between centrifugal and centripetal forces that led to the formation of the warrior state and the creation of a ‘warrior’ habitus in Japan.

Scenes of Life in the Chrysanthemum Court Society in Tokyo

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the chrysanthemum court and the role the standard of conduct from the West ... more This chapter examines the chrysanthemum court and the role the standard of conduct from the West and East played in modern society as part of the civilising process in Japan. Compared to the imperial court, which is concentrated on a civil lifestyle, and the warrior court, which is centred on a warrior lifestyle, the chrysanthemum court combined them and formed an organisation concentrated on modern and traditional lifestyles concentrating on the pursuit of Western and Eastern art and literature. To study the chrysanthemum court, the focus is placed on the chrysanthemum court society from the Meiji period (1868–1912) because this period marks the transition from a feudal society to a modern one that has produced a momentous transformation in the habitus of the hereditary aristocracy from feudal courtiers to modern ones.

Imperial State Formation Processes of Japan

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the state formation processes of the imperial state as part of investigatin... more This chapter examines the state formation processes of the imperial state as part of investigating the broader changes found in the civilising process of Japan. Through the examination of the imperial state from the Asuka period (538–710) to the Heian period (794–1185), it discusses how sociogenetic changes occurred in aristocratic society that contributed to the change in behaviours, emotions, and habitus of the Japanese discussed earlier in this book. Even though there are diverse models that can explain the formation of the imperial state (e.g., the anthropological evolutionary model) that suggests societies evolved in a series of stages, the imperial state in Japan is framed as a primary state formation that has produced a different trajectory from neighbouring states. Furthermore, using the state formation processes outlined in the theory of civilising processes, it explains how the formation of various underlying processes, and control over the monopolies of violence and taxation, led to the gradual centralisation and pacification of the imperial state and the formation of a Japanese ‘aristocratic’ habitus.

Modern State Formation Processes of Japan

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This chapter examines the state formation processes of the modern state as part of investigating ... more This chapter examines the state formation processes of the modern state as part of investigating the broader changes found in the civilising process of Japan. Through the examination of the modern state from the Meiji period (1868–1912) to the early Shōwa period (1926–1945), it presents how sociogenetic changes occurred in modern society that contributed towards the change in behaviours, emotions, and habitus of the Japanese found earlier in this book. Although there are different theories that can explain modern state formations (e.g., those from Michael Mann or Charles Tilly), the modern state in Japan is framed as a secondary state that displays features of a ‘supplanter’ secondary state that has replaced an existing state. Furthermore, using the state formation processes outlined in the theory of civilising processes, it charts how the rapid formation of various monopolies of power by centripetal forces led to the swift centralisation of the modern state and the creation of a ‘modern’ habitus in Japan.

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, 2022

This concluding chapter summarises the main points of this book. It explains how it traces the ke... more This concluding chapter summarises the main points of this book. It explains how it traces the key psychogenetic and sociogenetic developments found in the civilising process from a Japanese context. Moreover, emphasis is given to how it further develops the core theoretical and methodological aspects of the theory of civilising processes. To conclude, certain areas of interest are proposed that merit further study to help broaden the examination of civilising processes in Japan.

Book Review: Civilizing Emotions: Concepts in Nineteenth-Century Asia and Europe by Pernau et al.

Human Figurations, 2017

In Civilizing Emotions, the main aims of the book are two-fold. The first aim is to discuss the v... more In Civilizing Emotions, the main aims of the book are two-fold. The first aim is to discuss the various debates revolving around the uses of 'civilisation', 'civility' and 'emotions', and the second aim is to trace how these three concepts shifted within and between different societies. The various authors in the book provided a rich and detailed discussion tracing how the different uses of 'civility' and 'civilisation' corresponded to different expressions of emotions across different spatial dimensions and times.

The Japanese Civilising Process

University of Manchester, 2020

This thesis examines the patterns of development found in Japanese society to establish how struc... more This thesis examines the patterns of development found in Japanese society to establish how structural and psychological changes led to the Japanese seeing themselves as ‘more civilised’ than their forebears and neighbouring countries in the nineteenth century that contributed to the breakdown of their civilisation in the twentieth century. While existing scholarship from Eiko Ikegami, Shmuel Eisenstadt, and Johann Arnason sought to explain the development of the Japanese, they focus on a structuralist or culturalist approach. Both approaches have been limited and problematic because they have reached an impasse. To bridge this scholarly impasse, I have employed a novel approach by examining the development of Japanese society in a four-dimensional approach from longitudinal and latitudinal and macro and micro ways. Using Norbert Elias’s theory of civilising processes as the foundation of this thesis, I have traced the long-term developments in Japanese society from the seventh century to the nineteenth century. By drawing from primary and secondary sources in particular, I have illustrated various complex underlying psychological and structural processes similar to those found in Europe by Elias. Although the theory of civilising processes outlined in On the Process of Civilisation by Elias is the most crucial reference point, I have drawn from other parts of his writing to trace how the Japanese cultural arts (e.g., the tea ceremony), the Japanese court society (e.g., imperial and warrior courts), and the Japanese state-formation process (e.g., imperial and warrior state formations) form the civilising process in Japan. Moreover, to compensate for some shortfalls that Elias’s theory presents when examining the civilising process in Japan, I have engaged with writings from other scholars that have built on a partially scholarly consensus on the historical experience of the Japanese to address the different complex questions that have emerged. As such, by examining the Japanese civilising process, this thesis has presented an alternative way to understand the complex development of Japanese society and interceded into an ongoing debate about the applicability of Elias’s theory in a non-Western context by establishing, with minor modifications, a way to address developments beyond Europe.

The Japanese Tea Ceremony: From the Imperial Court Society to its Modern Cultural and Religious Significance (Creative Intentions 2015 Conference)

The Japanese tea ceremony occupies a unique position in Japan and is known as the “mother” of all... more The Japanese tea ceremony occupies a unique position in Japan and is known as the “mother” of all cultural art forms. According to this view, since its establishment in the Heian period (794-1185), the Japanese tea ceremony has crystallised Japanese culture and its aesthetic sense of ‘civility’. This evaluation of the Japanese tea ceremony can be explained from both a culturalist and historicist approaches. The culturalist approach focuses on the perpetuation of cultural premises that serves to explain specific features of Japanese tradition and its impact on modernity, while the historicist approach traces the wider long term social, economic, political and cultural developments as the prelude to the modernisation process. There is, however, a lack of dialogue between the two approaches and this has been much commented upon by scholars. This paper considers whether figuration sociology, as presented by Norbert Elias and ‘The Civilising Process’, can help us understand the Japanese tea ceremony and bridge the gap between the two approaches. I argue Figuration sociology can help us explore and explain the long-term historical developments and impacts of the tea ceremony on the formation of Japanese cultural tradition and that of the wider modernisation process.

Using the Theory of Established-Outsider by Norbert Elias to Understand Asian American Experiences (California Sociological Association 2020 Conference)

This paper seeks to present an alternative framework to approach Asian American experiences. By d... more This paper seeks to present an alternative framework to approach Asian American experiences. By drawing from the theory of established-outsider relations from Norbert Elias, which examines how tensions and conflict arose from unequal power relations between different social groups over time in society, this paper explains that there are useful features that can help examine how Asian Americans experience a sense of inclusion and exclusion in everyday life. Although this theory is used primarily in a European context, such as examining inequalities in British society, this paper argues that an in-depth examination of historical and contemporary cases of Asian American experiences (e.g., racism, discrimination, and inequality) using the theory will not only enhance understanding into the limits imposed on Asian Americans, but also propose a way to overcome certain social, cultural, and economic barriers.

From Court to Aristocracy in Japan: A Study of Western Cooking, Food, and Taste in the Chrysanthemum Court Society in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (California Sociological Association 2022 Conference)

This paper examines Western cooking, food, and taste in the chrysanthemum court society in the la... more This paper examines Western cooking, food, and taste in the chrysanthemum court society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Throughout the Meiji period (1868-1912), the Japanese understanding of cooking, food, and taste was transformed. As part of their rapid modernisation process, which involved learning from various European countries, the Japanese broadened their views on cooking and serving cuisines that satisfied the taste of Western dignitaries and visitors. Although private chefs played a crucial role in learning, cooking, and promoting Western cuisine in restaurants and hotels, the chrysanthemum court played an equally important role. As the centre of power, the court was responsible for the assimilation and dissemination of the latest cultural practices ranging from fashion (e.g., Western clothing) to music (e.g., Western concerts) from the West. Under the increasing patronage of members from the imperial and hereditary aristocratic families, Western cuisine became a significant feature in state banquets and court celebrations. However, studies into the vital role occupied by the chrysanthemum court in the assimilation and dissemination of Western cuisine remain underdeveloped because the focus is placed on structural or cultural developments. Through an Eliasian perspective, it helps bridge the structuralist and culturalist divide and presents fruitful insights into the influence of the chrysanthemum court. Furthermore, drawing on historical sources in the form of accounts, menus cards, recipe books, and manners books produced in the late nineteenth century, it charts how interaction with Western cooking, food, and taste by members of the chrysanthemum court contributed to the development of a ‘modern’ Japanese habitus.

On the Process of Civilisation in Japan (Guest Lecture Presentation 2024)

By employing the works of Norbert Elias in his book, he examines the complex civilising processes... more