Faculty of Law

Criminal responsibility is a global challenge in children's rights and it is more important than other legal issues in criminal subjects because of its essential role in children's life. The concept of the criminal responsibility has evolved over history and has been interpreted in various ways with the absence of a precise definition by different worldviews. Historical perspective requires putting aside belief systems and exploring the convergence of views from various systems. This paper discovers historical background of criminal responsibility from different schools in international law. The paper concentrates on the religious, social and cultural structures of the international society to explain the traditional concept of criminal responsibility. This paper demonstrates exist of different definitions of criminal responsibility in international law before and after 18th century. At the end in the conclusion this article discusses the history of the criminal responsibility as an indication of the growing exertion of the rights of the child in international law.

The age of criminal responsibility of children is important because of its relevance to children life. The minimum age of criminal responsibility of children is the lowest statutory age at which children may potentially be held criminally liable for infringements of the penal law in a given country. Thus, the area of children's rights includes the issue on age of criminal responsibility of children in international instruments as international standard. This article analyses the age of criminal responsibility of children in Iranian laws as a Member State of international instruments such as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) as the basic sources for the children"s rights in international law. This article analyses the legal framework for the age of criminal responsibility of children under the Iranian laws especially the Islamic Penalties Act. This article also discusses the conduct of prosecution and sentencing of children in Iran. The methodology involves gathering relevant data from the specified documents and compiling databases in order to analyse the material and arrive at a more complete understanding on the issue. The results of this analysis can be used to determine the proper age of criminal 32 responsibility of children in Iran, specifically, and to promote protection of the rights of child offenders in Iran, generally.

Research on the minimum age of criminal responsibility (MACR) of children has been quite evident in the past decade. Determining the MACR of children is a challenge to the global perception to children's rights. The challenge is associated with ideological differences concerning concepts of the MACR by States based on social, religious and cultural structures. The concept of the MACR has evolved over history and has been interpreted in various ways with the absence of a precise definition by different worldviews. The MACR of children is significant because of its relevancy to one of the fundamental rights of the child. The MACR of children is the lowest statutory age at which children may potentially be held criminally liable for infringements of the penal law in a given State. The present article seeks to examine the MACR of children in Member States of the ASEAN and also as the signitories to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC). This article adopts the legal and human rights analyses on the MACR of children from domestic legislations of ASEAN Member States such as Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia. The results of this analysis can be used to find the standards MACR of children in Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia.

In today's societies, children have a special position whereas in the past children were considered to be the property of the family. Today, children have a special individual character with independence social status. While, the expression of child law in statutes is important to stabilize their rights to save them from any aggression in society, it is not sufficient. Traditional

Abstract
In the global instruments, the rights of the child are so important because of its relevance to children life. The present paper attempts to determine the development and progress of the human rights instruments in international law regarding the rights of the child, as well as processes and standards existing in the instruments of international law to protect children. These processes seen as international framework for development of the human rights instruments related to children's rights which provided the analysis of the rights of the child and its properties. In the present study, the development of the global human rights instruments on the rights of the child are made between different instruments in international law because these instruments can be adapted to cultural and social situations in all States, increasing its ease of implementation. The result reflects an exhaustive and efficient way to explore the status of the children's rights and the enormous improvements in the rights of the child in global human rights instruments.
Keywords: Human rights; children’s rights; global instruments; international law; historical and legal framework

Abstract
The extraordinary importance of children’s rights and the significant role of children in the future of societies have led to the overwhelming ratification of international and regional instruments. The regional instruments geared towards promoting children’s right by States despite ideological differences concerning concepts associated with children’s rights. The right of the child is a relatively new concept. Today, there are regulations and principles for the children’s rights in terms of regional and international law. Regional legal instruments concerning the rights of the child can be considered one of the essential steps to remedy the situation faced by children concerning rights and protections. Although, the existence of such instruments is not sufficient, they will undoubtedly have great importance in regard to the rights of children. The present paper attempts to determine the development of human rights instruments in regional law regarding the rights of the child, as well as relevant legal provisions of the children's rights in regional instruments. The purpose of this article is to outline the legal framework of the regional human rights instruments on the rights of the child.

The minimum age of criminal responsibility (MACR) of children is so important because of its relevance to one of the fundamental rights of the child. The MACR of children is the lowest legal age of children which according to this age children has known responsible for criminal penalties. It means this age is the lowest statutory age at which children may potentially be held criminally liable for infringements of the penal law in a given country. Thus, the area of children's rights includes the issue on MACR of children in international instruments as international standard. This article analyses the MACR of children in Iranian and Indonesian laws as two members of international instruments such as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) as the basic sources of the children's rights in international law. While the UNCRC appears generally accepted as an international norm among State parties, the present study attempts to discover of legal perspectives in Iran and Indonesia regarding to the MACR of children as a challenge to the global perception of children's rights and the article also presents analysis the MACR of children from the various laws in Iran. The methodology involves gathering relevant data from the specified documents and compiling databases in order to analyses the material and arrive at a more complete understanding and selected the definition of the MACR for the children in Iranian and Indonesian laws. The results of this analysis can be used to necessity of development in legal perspective of the MACR of children in Iranian and Indonesian laws and to find the standards MACR of children.

and is a qualified advocate and solicitor of the High Court of Malaya in Malaysia� Since joining the Faculty of Law, University of Malaya as a tutor in 2006 she has been actively involved in various CLE programmes in Malaysia and has conducted street law CLE training programmes for other institutions in Indonesia and Vietnam� She is currently one of the supervisors for the Community Outreach Programme, a CLE programme at University of Malaya� Nur Farzana Mohd Zulkifli graduated with LL�B from University of Malaya and is currently an advocate and solicitor of the High Court of Malaya� She was one the most active members of the Community Outreach Programme at the Faculty of Law, University of Malaya, having been a member since her first year and was elected as the Deputy Director of the programme in 2009� Her responsibilities included teaching, training of members, programme planning and lesson plan developments for the programme� After graduation, she occasionally trains the members of the Community Outreach Programme for the teambuilding session and lesson plan development�

Gated communities are gaining popularity amongst the urban populace, particularly in the Klang Valley and have been associated with a better level of security, a stronger sense of community and a richer social capital compared to conventional housing schemes. Despite the growing number of gated community housing schemes, the developments of gated communities have gone unchecked for several years by the relevant authorities. Several issues have emerged with regards to such developments, such as the legality of gated communities and the potential social implications of such scheme on society. This paper intends to examine the developments of gated communities in Malaysia and discuss the legal and social implications of gated communities based on the research and surveys carried out by the writer in two gated communities in the Klang Valley. It will also explore the policies undertaken by some local authorities in relation to the developments of gated communities and guarded communitie...

Gated communities are gaining popularity amongst the urban populace, particularly in the Klang Valley and have been associated with a better level of security, a stronger sense of community and a richer social capital compared to conventional housing schemes. Despite the growing number of gated community housing schemes, the developments of gated communities have gone unchecked for several years by the relevant authorities. Several issues have emerged with regards to such developments, such as the legality of gated communities and the potential social implications of such scheme on society. This paper intends to examine the developments of gated communities in Malaysia and discuss the legal and social implications of gated communities based on the research and surveys carried out by the writer in two gated communities in the Klang Valley. It will also explore the policies undertaken by some local authorities in relation to the developments of gated communities and guarded communities, and the potential impact of such developments on the community and urban sustainability.