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Maarten Mous

Universiteit Leiden, African Linguistics/LUCL, Faculty Member

Universiteit Leiden, Department of African Languages and Cultures, Faculty Member

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Florida A&M University

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SOAS University of London

Yale University

Potsdam University

Johannes G . Helmbrecht

Roland Kießling

University of Hamburg

Fernando Zúñiga

University of Bern

Ben Gurion University of the Negev

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Iraqw by Maarten Mous

The Emergence of Lexical Applicatives in Iraqw

Arusha Working Papers in African Linguistics, 2022

Iraqw has a number of preverbal elements that are compounded to the verb and some of these have f... more Iraqw has a number of preverbal elements that are compounded to the verb and some of these have functions similar to an applicative. These compounds are not fully productive and are prone to lexicalisations. One of them, hara, doubles as a preposition. The grammaticalisation of a number of these preverbal elements allows us to study the process of development from preposition (and other independent elements) to verbal applicative marker.

Verbal Copy Iraqw Derivation

Representing Phonological Detail, 1: Segmental Structure and Representations, 2022

This paper presents a new analysis of a pattern of vowel copy in Iraqw verbal derivation. The mai... more This paper presents a new analysis of a pattern of vowel copy in Iraqw verbal derivation. The main claim is that velar stops, which have previously been analyzed as transparent, are in fact opaque. The resulting pattern is cross-linguistically less marked, since the class of transpalent consonants is now restricted to gutturals, i.e. laryngeals, phan¡ngeals, uvulars, and a series of back fricatives, whose realization is post-velar rather than velar. KeywordS: Vowel copy, transpatent consonants, gutturals, velars, rounding, cornef vowels, Search and CoPy, Iraqw t lntroduction Vowel copy (sometimes called vowel echo) is a process in which a vowel undergoes total assimilation to another vowel in an adiacent syllable. In this paper we examine a case of vowel copy in Iraqq a Cushitic language of Tanzania. The target of the copying process is a vowel which occufs in verbal derivations, where

USING A DISCOURSE ADVERB TO CORRECT EXPECTATIONS: AN ANALYSIS OF MAK IN IRAQW

Studies in African Linguistics, 2019

The discourse verbal adverb mak was initially defined as both indicating stance and having the pr... more The discourse verbal adverb mak was initially defined as both indicating stance and having the pragmatic function of hedging. In a further analysis using a corpus of Iraqw literature, this paper shows the function of the verbal adverb in Iraqw storytelling and proposes that mak is not related to stance. Instead, it was found that the verbal adverb acts at the discourse level highlighting an important aspect of a story, by organising contrasting information. In doing this, an Iraqw narrator has the ability to prevent audiences from making conclusions about a situation, by using mak to alert that more information is yet to come. This thorough analysis includes a comparison to five verbal adverbs that mak was initially grouped with (tsuwa, tó, lák, ák and alge), provides further insight into the functions of verbal adverbs, and a deeper understanding into the possible styles of storytelling from around the world.

The lraqw society reflected in their language

The integration of language and society: a cross-linguistic typology, 2021

A close inspection of the anthropological literature on Iraqw (Cushitic, Tanzania) reveals that c... more A close inspection of the anthropological literature on Iraqw (Cushitic, Tanzania) reveals that central properties in their culture include the relative importance of social relations and hence community over kinship relations, the relevance of relative rather than absolute time , the centrality of space in culture and the importance of ritual cleansiness. The paper investigates to what extend the Iraqw language reflects this. Language being a social construct is expected to reflect social structure over time, both in lexicon and in grammar. Indeed the Iraqw language reflects their social structure in a number of way. Their verbal art emphasizes the need for peace in the community and is strongly communal in performance. This is evident, for example, in the rituals for lifting a curse. The centrality of community is reflected in various part of the lexicon. expression for pride being one of them, or the factor of companionship in possession. It is also grammaticalised in an extension of the function of the impersonal subject pronoun to express actions done together. Iraqw mythology and tales never attempt to indicate a point on time and only report chronology of event. This conceptualisation of time is reflected in the absence of lexical elements for absolute time and the abstract notion time. Furthermore the language forces specification of gender in any direct address: the second person pronoun is gender specified, kinship terms used for address are all gender specified as is the interjection for attention. Iraqw shows signs for a disappearing in-law respect register.

A Sketch of Iraqw Grammar

A grammar of Iraqw

Contents Acknowledgements ix Abbreviations xi List of affixes xiii Maps xv 3.3. Derived nouns 7 4... more Contents Acknowledgements ix Abbreviations xi List of affixes xiii Maps xv 3.3. Derived nouns 7 4 3.4. Other noun suffixes 82 3.4.1. The demonstrative suffixes 90 3.4.2. The possessive suffixes 92 3.4.3. The indefinite suffixes 93 3.4.4. The construct case suffix 94 3.4.5. The adverbial case suffixes 102 3.4.5.1. The directive case suffix 103 3.4.5.2. The ablative case suffix 104 3.4.5.3. The instrumental case suffix 106 3.4.5.4. The reason case suffix 107 3.4.6. The background case suffix 107 3.4. 7. The vocative case 111 3.5. Pronouns 112 3.5.1. Personal pronouns 112 Vl 3.5.2. Independent forms of noun suffixes 114 3.5.3. The resumptive pronoun ale 117 3.6. Numerals 117 3.7. Proper nouns 119 3.8. Question words 120 4. The verb 123 4.1. The verbs 'to.,be' 123 4.1.1. The verbs 'to be' with a nominal complement 124 4.1.2. The verbs 'to be' with a verbal or an adjectival complement 125 4. 1.3. The use of the dependend verb 'to be' 132 4.1.4. The hither 134 4.1.5. The impersonal 'to be' 136 4. 1.6. The reflexive and reciprocal 139 4.1. 7. Additional affixes: Order and possible combinations 140 4.1 .8. The tense and aspect markers: The perfect-(g)a 141 4.1.9. The expectational aspect-n 144 4.1.10. The imperfective past-na 145 4.1.11. The consecutive-ri 146 4.1.12. The consecutive-ay 146 4.1.13 The background aspect-wa 147 4.1.14. The mood prefixes:The conditional bar and the concessive tarn 147 4.1.15. The prohibitive and questioning mood prefixes m-150 4.1.16. The case clitics 152 4.

Iraqw-English dictionary: with an English and a thesaurus index

pre publication version in pdf, Jan 1, 2002

Loanwords in Iraqw, a Cushitic language of Tanzania

Haspelmath, Martin & Tadmor, Uri (eds.) Loanwords in the world's languages: A comparative handbook. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2009

The syntactic function of a scope marking suffix in Iraqw.

by Maarten Mous and Martha Qorro

Jounal of African Languages and Linguistics 31: 47–78, 2010

A morpheme that plays an important role in the organisation of information structure in the Iraqw... more A morpheme that plays an important role in the organisation of information structure in the Iraqw sentence is the suffix -o. This suffix is used to indicate the clause that is the scope of negation, of yes/no questioning; the theme of the question; or the constituent that is the basis for comparison. It also indicates
the setting of the sentence and appears on sentence adverbials of time or space. It is common on second objects that are not part of the verbal complex.
Verbal nouns that occur outside the verbal complex contain this suffix. The suffix indicates the scope over which an operation is valid and excludes other comparable referents from the operation in question. Its verbal counterpart is a suffix -a which is used with verbal negation and questioning.

Middle voice in Iraqw

Lugha za Tanzania/Languages of Tanzania: Studies …, Jan 1, 2000

Copulas in Iraqw, a Cushitic Language from Tanzania

Iraqw copulas are used for predicational, specificational and equative clauses. Location requires... more Iraqw copulas are used for predicational, specificational and equative clauses. Location requires a slightly different shape of copula and dependent clauses and verb forms yet another one. Presentative sentences are marked differently. Nominal clauses are negated by adding a predicative marker and a negation marker to the end of the clause. Not only nominal clauses but also verbal clauses require an extra word and these are identical to the copula in basic sentences. Nevertheless we cannot claim that every Iraqw sentences needs a copula because in verbal clauses these are replaced by object pronouns under certain circumstance even though the presence or absence of copula with these object pronouns relies on morphoholological analysis.

Incorporation: a comparison between Iraqw and Dutch

Linguistics, Jan 1, 2002

The focus of this paper is the notion "mcorporation" as it has been used and discussed m recent h... more The focus of this paper is the notion "mcorporation" as it has been used and discussed m recent hterature on the morphology/syntax interface We firsl give a brief survey of the mam issues m the theoretical discussion, and we pomt out that the dichotomy "lexical or syntactic" doesn't seem to do justice to

The grammar of conjunctive and disjunctive coordination in Iraqw

Coordinating constructions, Jan 1, 2004

The back in Iraqw: Extensions of meaning in space

Dutch Studies-NELL, Jan 1, 1995

Datooga and Iraqw: A comparison of subsistence vocabulary

Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, Jan 1, 2001

Les auterus examinent dans cet article des preuves linguistiques qui mettraient en évidence les c... more

The evidential adverb hhóo in Iraqw

The adverb hhóo has escaped attention of Iraqw scholars so-far. It is corrective of presuppositio... more The adverb hhóo has escaped attention of Iraqw scholars so-far. It is corrective of presuppositions and therefore it does not figure in narrative texts, nor in elicitation. It expresses that the speaker has positive objective evidence to correct a presumed view or pre-supposition hold by the partner in the dialogue.

The adverbial qo in Iraqw

openaccess.leidenuniv.nl

Transparent consonants

Linguistics in the Netherlands, Jan 1, 1992

Broken Plurals Iraqw

Iraqw Slufay and the Power of Voice

by Rose Marie Beck and Maarten Mous

1 The lraqw orthography is used in this paper: I is a voiced pharyngeal fricative with creaky voi... more 1 The lraqw orthography is used in this paper: I is a voiced pharyngeal fricative with creaky voice, hh is a voiceless pharyngeal fricative, ' is a glottal stop (not written but present word initially), sl is a voiceless lateral fricative, tl and ts are ejective affricates, the former with lateral release, ng is a velar nasal word-initially and word-finally and fol-

The Emergence of Lexical Applicatives in Iraqw

Arusha Working Papers in African Linguistics, 2022

Iraqw has a number of preverbal elements that are compounded to the verb and some of these have f... more Iraqw has a number of preverbal elements that are compounded to the verb and some of these have functions similar to an applicative. These compounds are not fully productive and are prone to lexicalisations. One of them, hara, doubles as a preposition. The grammaticalisation of a number of these preverbal elements allows us to study the process of development from preposition (and other independent elements) to verbal applicative marker.

Verbal Copy Iraqw Derivation

Representing Phonological Detail, 1: Segmental Structure and Representations, 2022

This paper presents a new analysis of a pattern of vowel copy in Iraqw verbal derivation. The mai... more This paper presents a new analysis of a pattern of vowel copy in Iraqw verbal derivation. The main claim is that velar stops, which have previously been analyzed as transparent, are in fact opaque. The resulting pattern is cross-linguistically less marked, since the class of transpalent consonants is now restricted to gutturals, i.e. laryngeals, phan¡ngeals, uvulars, and a series of back fricatives, whose realization is post-velar rather than velar. KeywordS: Vowel copy, transpatent consonants, gutturals, velars, rounding, cornef vowels, Search and CoPy, Iraqw t lntroduction Vowel copy (sometimes called vowel echo) is a process in which a vowel undergoes total assimilation to another vowel in an adiacent syllable. In this paper we examine a case of vowel copy in Iraqq a Cushitic language of Tanzania. The target of the copying process is a vowel which occufs in verbal derivations, where

USING A DISCOURSE ADVERB TO CORRECT EXPECTATIONS: AN ANALYSIS OF MAK IN IRAQW

Studies in African Linguistics, 2019

The discourse verbal adverb mak was initially defined as both indicating stance and having the pr... more The discourse verbal adverb mak was initially defined as both indicating stance and having the pragmatic function of hedging. In a further analysis using a corpus of Iraqw literature, this paper shows the function of the verbal adverb in Iraqw storytelling and proposes that mak is not related to stance. Instead, it was found that the verbal adverb acts at the discourse level highlighting an important aspect of a story, by organising contrasting information. In doing this, an Iraqw narrator has the ability to prevent audiences from making conclusions about a situation, by using mak to alert that more information is yet to come. This thorough analysis includes a comparison to five verbal adverbs that mak was initially grouped with (tsuwa, tó, lák, ák and alge), provides further insight into the functions of verbal adverbs, and a deeper understanding into the possible styles of storytelling from around the world.

The lraqw society reflected in their language

The integration of language and society: a cross-linguistic typology, 2021

A close inspection of the anthropological literature on Iraqw (Cushitic, Tanzania) reveals that c... more A close inspection of the anthropological literature on Iraqw (Cushitic, Tanzania) reveals that central properties in their culture include the relative importance of social relations and hence community over kinship relations, the relevance of relative rather than absolute time , the centrality of space in culture and the importance of ritual cleansiness. The paper investigates to what extend the Iraqw language reflects this. Language being a social construct is expected to reflect social structure over time, both in lexicon and in grammar. Indeed the Iraqw language reflects their social structure in a number of way. Their verbal art emphasizes the need for peace in the community and is strongly communal in performance. This is evident, for example, in the rituals for lifting a curse. The centrality of community is reflected in various part of the lexicon. expression for pride being one of them, or the factor of companionship in possession. It is also grammaticalised in an extension of the function of the impersonal subject pronoun to express actions done together. Iraqw mythology and tales never attempt to indicate a point on time and only report chronology of event. This conceptualisation of time is reflected in the absence of lexical elements for absolute time and the abstract notion time. Furthermore the language forces specification of gender in any direct address: the second person pronoun is gender specified, kinship terms used for address are all gender specified as is the interjection for attention. Iraqw shows signs for a disappearing in-law respect register.

A Sketch of Iraqw Grammar

A grammar of Iraqw

Contents Acknowledgements ix Abbreviations xi List of affixes xiii Maps xv 3.3. Derived nouns 7 4... more Contents Acknowledgements ix Abbreviations xi List of affixes xiii Maps xv 3.3. Derived nouns 7 4 3.4. Other noun suffixes 82 3.4.1. The demonstrative suffixes 90 3.4.2. The possessive suffixes 92 3.4.3. The indefinite suffixes 93 3.4.4. The construct case suffix 94 3.4.5. The adverbial case suffixes 102 3.4.5.1. The directive case suffix 103 3.4.5.2. The ablative case suffix 104 3.4.5.3. The instrumental case suffix 106 3.4.5.4. The reason case suffix 107 3.4.6. The background case suffix 107 3.4. 7. The vocative case 111 3.5. Pronouns 112 3.5.1. Personal pronouns 112 Vl 3.5.2. Independent forms of noun suffixes 114 3.5.3. The resumptive pronoun ale 117 3.6. Numerals 117 3.7. Proper nouns 119 3.8. Question words 120 4. The verb 123 4.1. The verbs 'to.,be' 123 4.1.1. The verbs 'to be' with a nominal complement 124 4.1.2. The verbs 'to be' with a verbal or an adjectival complement 125 4. 1.3. The use of the dependend verb 'to be' 132 4.1.4. The hither 134 4.1.5. The impersonal 'to be' 136 4. 1.6. The reflexive and reciprocal 139 4.1. 7. Additional affixes: Order and possible combinations 140 4.1 .8. The tense and aspect markers: The perfect-(g)a 141 4.1.9. The expectational aspect-n 144 4.1.10. The imperfective past-na 145 4.1.11. The consecutive-ri 146 4.1.12. The consecutive-ay 146 4.1.13 The background aspect-wa 147 4.1.14. The mood prefixes:The conditional bar and the concessive tarn 147 4.1.15. The prohibitive and questioning mood prefixes m-150 4.1.16. The case clitics 152 4.

Iraqw-English dictionary: with an English and a thesaurus index

pre publication version in pdf, Jan 1, 2002

Loanwords in Iraqw, a Cushitic language of Tanzania

Haspelmath, Martin & Tadmor, Uri (eds.) Loanwords in the world's languages: A comparative handbook. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2009

The syntactic function of a scope marking suffix in Iraqw.

by Maarten Mous and Martha Qorro

Jounal of African Languages and Linguistics 31: 47–78, 2010

A morpheme that plays an important role in the organisation of information structure in the Iraqw... more A morpheme that plays an important role in the organisation of information structure in the Iraqw sentence is the suffix -o. This suffix is used to indicate the clause that is the scope of negation, of yes/no questioning; the theme of the question; or the constituent that is the basis for comparison. It also indicates
the setting of the sentence and appears on sentence adverbials of time or space. It is common on second objects that are not part of the verbal complex.
Verbal nouns that occur outside the verbal complex contain this suffix. The suffix indicates the scope over which an operation is valid and excludes other comparable referents from the operation in question. Its verbal counterpart is a suffix -a which is used with verbal negation and questioning.

Middle voice in Iraqw

Lugha za Tanzania/Languages of Tanzania: Studies …, Jan 1, 2000

Copulas in Iraqw, a Cushitic Language from Tanzania

Iraqw copulas are used for predicational, specificational and equative clauses. Location requires... more Iraqw copulas are used for predicational, specificational and equative clauses. Location requires a slightly different shape of copula and dependent clauses and verb forms yet another one. Presentative sentences are marked differently. Nominal clauses are negated by adding a predicative marker and a negation marker to the end of the clause. Not only nominal clauses but also verbal clauses require an extra word and these are identical to the copula in basic sentences. Nevertheless we cannot claim that every Iraqw sentences needs a copula because in verbal clauses these are replaced by object pronouns under certain circumstance even though the presence or absence of copula with these object pronouns relies on morphoholological analysis.

Incorporation: a comparison between Iraqw and Dutch

Linguistics, Jan 1, 2002

The focus of this paper is the notion "mcorporation" as it has been used and discussed m recent h... more The focus of this paper is the notion "mcorporation" as it has been used and discussed m recent hterature on the morphology/syntax interface We firsl give a brief survey of the mam issues m the theoretical discussion, and we pomt out that the dichotomy "lexical or syntactic" doesn't seem to do justice to

The grammar of conjunctive and disjunctive coordination in Iraqw

Coordinating constructions, Jan 1, 2004

The back in Iraqw: Extensions of meaning in space

Dutch Studies-NELL, Jan 1, 1995

Datooga and Iraqw: A comparison of subsistence vocabulary

Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, Jan 1, 2001

Les auterus examinent dans cet article des preuves linguistiques qui mettraient en évidence les c... more

The evidential adverb hhóo in Iraqw

The adverb hhóo has escaped attention of Iraqw scholars so-far. It is corrective of presuppositio... more The adverb hhóo has escaped attention of Iraqw scholars so-far. It is corrective of presuppositions and therefore it does not figure in narrative texts, nor in elicitation. It expresses that the speaker has positive objective evidence to correct a presumed view or pre-supposition hold by the partner in the dialogue.

The adverbial qo in Iraqw

openaccess.leidenuniv.nl

Transparent consonants

Linguistics in the Netherlands, Jan 1, 1992

Broken Plurals Iraqw

Iraqw Slufay and the Power of Voice

by Rose Marie Beck and Maarten Mous

1 The lraqw orthography is used in this paper: I is a voiced pharyngeal fricative with creaky voi... more 1 The lraqw orthography is used in this paper: I is a voiced pharyngeal fricative with creaky voice, hh is a voiceless pharyngeal fricative, ' is a glottal stop (not written but present word initially), sl is a voiceless lateral fricative, tl and ts are ejective affricates, the former with lateral release, ng is a velar nasal word-initially and word-finally and fol-

Yaaku and Ma' á: An Endangered Language and the Way Out The Yaaku of Kenya and their Language

The Yaaku have shifted from an East Cushitic language to Maasai (East Nilotic) and are presently ... more The Yaaku have shifted from an East Cushitic language to Maasai (East Nilotic) and are presently interested in revitalizing their language as part of a process of emancipation due to changed socio-political circumstances. There are too few speakers left to hope for a successful revitalisation of the language as it was. Another strategy may be more realistic: create a Yaaku language based on Maasai grammar with insertion of Yaaku words. The Ma' á or Mbugu who arguably originate from the Yaaku, took that path in creating their own language which functions fully for the purpose of a strong expression of their identity.

The making of a mixed language: The case of Ma'a/Mbugu

Ma'a as an ethnoregister of Mbugu

Historical Language Contact in Africa (Sprache und …

Mixed languages, Jan 1, 1994

Mixed Languages

Mixed Languages (Studies in Language and Language Use 13), Jan 1, 1994

The case studies in this book form a valuable challenge and contribution to historical linguistic... more The case studies in this book form a valuable challenge and contribution to
historical linguistics. The changes are spectacular in outcome and - when
recoverable- in speed. The correlation of the mixture and the social context
is crucial in the understanding of the processes involved. We hope that the
contributions to this book will help to make the study of mixed languages and
their genesis a respectable field within historical linguistics and
sociolinguistics. They show the manifest necessity in the study of these
languages that historical and social factors should be linked with structural
and typological properties of the languages involved. Only in this way can one
try to unravel the genesis of these mixed languages. The social factors, and
not linguistic ones, are responsible for the emergence of mixed languages. We
further realize that languages like these (especially in their dichotomy of
grammar and lexicon) challenge various assumptions made in psycholinguistic
and formal linguistic theories.
The comparative study of mixed languages is only just beginning. This book
provides materials and analyses on individual mixed languages rather than
a unified theory. Only with the availability of these materials can a serious
comparative study begin.

Paralexification in language intertwining

Creolization and Contact (Creole Language Library 23), ed. by Norval Smith and Tonjes Veenstra, pp. 113-123., Jan 1, 2001

One of the important processes in language intertwining is what I call paralexification; This is ... more

Selective replacement is extreme lexical re-orientation

Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, Jan 1, 2000

... Selective replacement is extreme lexical re-orientation. Maarten Mous a1 a1 Department of Afr... more

Was there ever a Southern Cushitic language (pre-) Ma'a

Cushitic and Omotic languages, Jan 1, 1996

The e/a alternation in Mbugu: The limits of allomorphy

Linguistics in the Netherlands, Jan 1, 1997

Number as an exponent of gender in Cushitic

Interaction of morphology and syntax: Case studies in …, Jan 1, 2008

Plural as a value of Cushitic gender: Evidence from gender congruency effect experiments in Konso (Cushitic)

by Maarten Mous and Niels O Schiller

Challenges of Cushitic reduplication for Generalized Template Theory

by Maarten Mous and Laura Downing

In this paper we investigate two typical Cushitic reduplication patterns, CVC-initial and-C final... more In this paper we investigate two typical Cushitic reduplication patterns, CVC-initial and-C final. They were chosen, as they would appear to be especially problematic for the generalized template theory of reduplication developed within OT: neither CVC-nor-C is an unmarked syllable or unmarked metrical foot. The challenge for any analysis is to motivate why these shapes are unmarked. We propose that CVC-is a minimal root, and variations in the realization of CVC-reduplicants are shown to be an emergence of the unmarked effect, following from different rankings of constraints on coda consonants and geminates in the different languages. We propose that the-C final pattern does not actually involve the morphological process of reduplication, but rather a phonologically motivated process of consonant copy. The patterns are illustrated with abundant examples drawn from a number of Cushitic languages .

Reduplication in Cushitic

The Middle in Cushitic Languages

Selectors in Cushitic

Studies in African Linguistic Typology, Jan 1, 2005

Cushitic languages are verb final, but many among them have an additional inflectional element in... more Cushitic languages are verb final, but many among them have an additional inflectional element in the sentence that is separate from the verb for which I use the term selector here. The purpose of the article is to provide an overview of these elements, of their functions and of which categories are expressed on them. What most of these so-called selectors have in common is the marking of sentence type and/or focus, and of subject. The comparison results in three types of selectors: (i) those that define the left border of a syntactic unit such as the verbal piece in Somali; (ii) those that indicate focus as a pro-clitic to the verb, and (iii) those that indicate focus by their position in the sentence.

Subject clitics in Konso

In Konso (Cushitic, Ethiopia), a sentence contains an inflectional element separate from the verb... more In Konso (Cushitic, Ethiopia), a sentence contains an inflectional element separate from the verb. This is in essence a subject clitic and a sentence type indicator. Its position is at some place in the sentence before the verb and indicative of information structure. The article provides a first full analysis of the basic properties of the subject clitic.

The Semantics of Clause Linking in Konso

The causative in Konso

Sprache und Wissen in Afrika; Beitraege zum, Jan 1, 2004

The middle and passive derivations in Konso

Omotic and Cushitic Language Studies: Papers from …, Jan 1, 2003

Basic Alagwa syntax

New data and new methods in Afroasiatic linguistics: …, Jan 1, 2001

Alagwa is a Southern Cushitic language spoken by approximately 10,000 speakers m the area north o... more Alagwa is a Southern Cushitic language spoken by approximately 10,000 speakers m the area north of Kondoa m Tanzania The data m this article are based on fieldwork in Kolo on four different occasions between 1988 and 1995 The penods were never longer than a month I worked mainly with Idi Isa Sitaye, Juma Kimolo, and Kitabasi K Kitabasi, and I collected stones from Shabani Me'ee Tsi'i 1 The morphological analysis is based mamly on ehcitaüon, the syntactic analysis solely on the basis of these stones and on one story which Roland Kiesslmg collected, Alagwa is under pressure from the surroundmg Bantu language Rangi (Langi) The mternal classification of the (West Rift) Southern Cushitic languages based on shared innovations is [Burunge [Alagwa [Gorwa [Iraqw]]], see Kiessling (1998 168) No grammatical Information is available on Gorwa, for Iraqw see Mous (1993), foi Burunge see Kiessling (1994) I am working on a descnptive grammar of Alagwa Pubhshed data on Alagwa can be found m Whiteley (1958) and Tucker and Bryan The outstanding feature of the syntax of the Southern Cushitic languages is that the verbal functions are divided over the verb and an obligatory sentence building word that has been variously termed indicator particle, selector, or verb "to be" This feature has some correlates with verbal prefixes in a number of Eastern Cushitic languages such as 1 1 would like to thank all these people m Kolo and others who made my stay so pleasant, m particular Juma Mpore and bis wife I am grateful to Roland Kiessling for shanng his data and msights with me and to Onn Gensler for his comments on an earher version of this paper The orthography in this paper is based on the Standard Iraqw orthography The grapheme / indicates a creaky voiced pharyngeal fncative, j is a voiced palatal stop, ch is a voiceless palatal stop fhe affncates ts and // are ejective The latter has a lateral release, si stands for a voiceless lateral fncative, hh represents a voiceless pharyngeal fncative, y is used for the ghde A nasal n before a velar stop is always homorganic, ny is the palatal nasal, ng is the velar nasal which, between vowels, is always followed by a homorganic stop and wntten ng Glottal stops are mdicated by an apostrophe, but I do not wnte word-mitial glottal stops -all vowel-imtial words begin m a glottal stop Long vowels are mdicated by doublmg the vowel symbol, superscnpt vowels symbohze whispered vowels, hig'i tones are wntten by an acute accent The followmg abbreviations are used m tho glosses 1,2,3 first, second, third person, ordegree of deixis in demonstratives, ABL ablative, BEN bemficiary,

The Tanzanian Rift Valley area

A Linguistic Geography of Africa, Cambridge, Jan 1, 2008

Recollecting Words and Expressions in Aasá, a Dead Language in Tanzania

Anthropological Linguistics, Jan 1, 2011

Aasá, a Cushitic language, was formerly spoken by a hunter-gatherer community that constitutes a ... more

Somalisch (in Dutch)

.omaliërs zijn in korte lijd na Marokkanen de grootste groep Afrikanen in Nederand geworden. Aang... more .omaliërs zijn in korte lijd na Marokkanen de grootste groep Afrikanen in Nederand geworden. Aangezien zij vrij recent in Nederland zijn gekomen, vooral na 990, is hun aanwezigheid nog weinig prominent in de beleving van Nederlanders, iezien het feit dat een grote groep Somalische jongeren en kinderen nu in Nederland opgroeit, is hel aannemelijk dat ook de Somalische aanwezigheid in de Nederlandse samenleving van blijvende aard is.

The Lexical Reconstruction of West-Rift Southern Cushitic

The Bantu Languages, Jan 1, 2003

CHAPTER SIXTEEN NEN (A44) Maarten Mous ABBREVIATIONS BJ Baudouin Janssens DC Dugast (1975) DG Dug... more

The position of the object in Tunen

Object Positions in Benue-Kwa, Jan 1, 1997

Innen' has features that are remarkable for a Bantu language It has a füll) opeiating vowel harmo... more Innen' has features that are remarkable for a Bantu language It has a füll) opeiating vowel harmon) sjstem (Stewart & Van Leynseele 1979, Mous 1986) which is at least m part an Innovation (De Blois 1981) It shows telles of consonantal harmony in the feature fortis/lems (Van It\nscelc cV Stewirt 1980} 2 In addition to these phonological features, funcn h is a svntax that is atypical for Bantu an object noun phrase can ou. u r in front of the verb Â mong the Benue Kwa languages with signs of OV order, Tunen is p irncuhrlv interesnng Whereas some Banru and Border Bantu languages rm\ hive the object befoic the verb in <i limned number of tenses only (e g bcfore negative verb forrns), Turen has ÖV order for al) tenses Under speufic conditions the object does occur after the verb, yieldmg \ O order The aim of this articJe is to Jescnbe these properties 4 ' [ HIK n (B mm A VI) is spoken in Camcroun aiound Ndikimmeki where savannah and forest mui t lost, co the s) tilled Grasshelds arcj The iangmgt. is descnbed in detail by Idelecrc Odgisr uho Jfiortd lier life to the srudv of the Banen and pubhshed her findmgs m a rwo v )luine tthnognphic ^tud\ a gnmnnr a lexicon and a collecuon of stones This study relies on litr woik ind ilso on m\ 1984 fieJov-ork Data collected frorn Honore Boyoleba Bilahen ui l tri-; Anrwtrp uid leiden (1984 86) are indicated bv HB or bv HB fK. if coUected by Juliiiii Kuptrus in Ltiden Dati co'lectcd from hrnanuel Bikoui in Ndikinimeki Cameroun jrt indiL itcd b\ L B l tin n k tlie wo abo^e mennoned BanEn as we]} as Jean Owaken for sh inn^, ihtir l inj,u igt-with mt l aJso thank Fnrs Kortlandt ind Chris Collins for commems ind sugj,cstions Kut Jimwns (1993 pp 8? 92) has shown that at least part of thtse seemmgly doublé rcfltxcs of l j roto Bintu consoiunts ein be explamed b; conditions on sound chinges and di u theie is no necd to fiil bick on a fortis/lcnis disnncnon prior to Bancû lt is nol tht onlv Bintu or Benue Kwa language with OV order Grcgoire (1993) presems «tevcral Bintu ]i/i^uages wirh signs of OV order Tunen OV order is probably an Innovation as wel! Chudt (1993 102) proposes i path for how n nught have come about 1 l h t n r m O Vorder re fers to surfice word order only and not to a typologicil categor\

The innovative character of Object-Verb word order in Nen (Bantu A44, Cameroon)

Studies in African Comparative Linguistics with Special …, Jan 1, 2005

TAM-Full Object-Verb Order in the Mbam languages of Cameroon

Nen and Nyokon are unique among the Bantu languages in allowing full nominal objects between the ... more Nen and Nyokon are unique among the Bantu languages in allowing full nominal objects between the tense/aspect marker and the verb. Despite the fact that the two languages are neighbours and related they make different use of this positional option. In Nen the position is the default one for objects and the post-verbal position renders an object discrete and suitable for quantified objects and for contrast. In Nyokon the position before the verb is functionally equivalent to the one after the verb. The difference is related to the fact that Nyokon allows the preverbal object only in certain tenses whereas in Nen it is not restricted. But contrasted objects in Nyokon too appear after the verb. There is a construction in which both positions are filled with a constituent. This construction is modelled on a secondary predication construction.

Voice in Tunen: The co-called passive prefix bé-

Evidence and Counter-Evidence: essays in honour of …, Jan 1, 2008

&amp;WJEFODFÛBOEÛ $ PVOUFS &amp;WJEFODF Û&#x27;FTUTDISJGUÛ&#x27;SFEFSJLÛ, PSUMBOE... more

The autosegmental analysis of reduced vowel harmony systems: the case of Tunen

by Maarten Mous and Norval Smith

Linguistics in the …, 1986

1. Introduction In the "slmplest case" of vowel harmony there are two non-overlapping s... more

Vowel harmony in Tunen

… representation of suprasegmentals: studies on African …, Jan 1, 1986

A dialectometrical study of some Bantu languages (A. 40-A. 60) of Cameroon

by A. Breedveld and Maarten Mous

La méthode dialectométrique, …, Jan 1, 1986

A Grammatical Sketch of Mbugwe: Bantu F34, Tanzania

Counter-universal rise of infinitive-auxiliary order in Mbugwe

Vossen & Mietzner & Meissner, Jan 1, 2000

The comitative/conjunctive preposition na in Chatu (Pare), a Bantu language of Tanzania

South African Journal of African Languages, Jan 1, 2004

Kenya: Sheng and Engsh

Urban Contact Dialects and Language Change Insights from the Global North and South, 2022

Kerrya is a Sub-Saharân country located in East Africa. .Geographi- cally, Kenya's neighbor-rrs â... more Kerrya is a Sub-Saharân country located in East Africa. .Geographi- cally, Kenya's neighbor-rrs âre Uganda, Tanzanta, Sornali, Ethiopia, South suilan aud the Inclian Ocean. It has a population of roughly 55 urillion.t Kenya's linguistic and social context rnanifests a typical societal multilingual basc wíth more than 17 incligerlous languages that are mutually unintelligible. Some of them, er.g. the l-uhyia language, have more than 15 nìurually intelligible dialects. The rnain indigenous languages originate from the Bantu, Nilotic ancl Cushitic farnilies.2 They are associated witl-r different ethnic groups ancl s¡roken as first languages anrl vemaculars. The country also has non-irtdigenous lan- guages that are spoken by second and third generatiorì immigrants, such as Flindi from South Asia (Guierati i-rnd Punjabi), and Arabic from Otnan and Yelnen. Kenya's official languages are Swahili, Englislt and Kenyan Sign Lan- guagc. It is worth mentioning that Swahili is also spoken in other east and central African countries ancl islands, including Tanzania, Zanzibar, Ugancla, Congo, Rr,vanda and Burundi. In Kenya, many pcoplc' cspe cially those without a vemacular language, use it as their first language. It is a lingua franca for the whole country and is deemed to be a relatively nerltral language since it is not strongly associated with any particular ethnic group.3 However', often, one may hear somebocly's ethuic language through their pronunciation of Swatrili and recognise the person's ethnic background in their Swahili acceût. Errglish, on the other harrd, is the offìcial language usecl particularly in official settings. lt was introduced to l(errya by British settlers during the colonial period. It is taught in schools, used fol offìcial gathcrings and in official documents. It is also used in informal settings, especially among the educated. Currently, there are different varieties of English used in Kenya: Stanclard Englisha ancl Kenyan English (Kenglish or Kenyanese). DoL I 0.4324 / 91 80 429 481 9 58 -8 reason from Brookes and Kouassi (2018) is that the majority of attemprs to document Sheng in dictionaries and for translation purposes rnainly result in documentation of Kenyan Swahili with relatively few words in Sheng. Githiora (2016) explains that the cause of this is that many words a 108 Maarten Mous and Sandra Barasa in Sheng are usually adapted in Kenyan Swahili, for example, the original Sheng greeting Sasa which is no longer Sheng but Kenyan Swahili.

Sheng and Engsh in Kenya's Public Spaces and Media

Youth Language Practices and Urban Language Contact in Africa, 2021

This chapter discusses the role of the media in the development in Kenya of Sheng (showing largel... more This chapter discusses the role of the media in the development in Kenya of Sheng (showing largely African language syntax with salient English lexis) and Engsh (showing the reverse, i.e. largely the syntax of English and lexis from several African languages) in Kenya. While African urban youth languages may start as antilanguages of the streets, many develop a much wider speech community due to their gradual spread from the street and the informal transport environment into song lyrics and thus the radio, and into comic strips and cartoons and thus the printed press. The use of these two youth language varieties in these media has the additional effect of making them acceptable for a larger part of the society, as a style of youth and modernity and rendering this style fit for advertisement and use on television, in soap operas. This development is illustrated with Sheng and Engsh.
Keywords: Sheng, Engsh, urban youth, street language, new media, style shift, modernity, matatu, Kenyan English, Swahili

Loss of linguistic diversity in Africa

… and language maintenance: theoretical, practical and …, Jan 1, 2003

Urban youth languages in Africa

Anthropological linguistics, Jan 1, 2004

Youths in several urban centers on the African continent are continuously creating their own lang... more Youths in several urban centers on the African continent are continuously creating their own languages in order to set themselves apart from the older generation. These languages also serve to bridge ethnic differences. Cases have been reported for Abidjan, Nairobi, Johannesburg, Kinshasa-Brazzaville, and Yaounde. We show that these urban youth languages have much in common, both in function and in the linguistic strategies that their speakers use. The strategies found are typical for conscious language manipulation in general. Languages that arise through lexical manipulation can be divided into four types according to their function and use. Urban youth languages fall into the category of what Halliday terms antilanguages, but differ from other instances of language manipulation such as argot, taboo, jargon, slang, secret languages, and in-law respect languages. The difference lies not only in their different functions, but also, and related to these, in a preference for the use of certain types of conscious manipulation above others. The primary function of these urban youth languages is to create a powerful icon of identity. The identity in question is established through the reversal of norms, and develops from an underdog type of identity to one aimed at reforming society.

Urban youth speech styles in Kenya and The Netherlands

by Maarten Mous and Margreet Dorleijn

Engsh, a Kenyan middle class youth language parallel to Sheng

by Sandra (Sandy) Barasa and Maarten Mous

Youth 'languages' are an important topic of research in the domain of linguistic change through l... more Youth 'languages' are an important topic of research in the domain of linguistic change through language contact because the change is rapid and observable and also because the social dimension of change is inevitably present. Engsh, as a youth language in Kenya expresses not only modernity and Kenyan identity but also, the status of being educated, and it differs in this respect from Sheng, the dominant Kenyan youth language. The element of Engsh that expresses this aspect most directly is the use of a grammatical system from English whereas Sheng uses Swahili. In lexicon, Engsh draws upon Sheng and urban English slang. This is a first extensive description of Engsh. The social function of Engsh is interesting in that class is expressed in it, which is not often reported in African urban youth codes. Also the fact that Engsh is a non-exclusive register, which expands through its use in (social) media and most of all in computer mediated communication.

The Development of Youth Languages in Africa

This book form part of the following research «La diversitat lingtiistica en la escuela: guia par... more

Vous nous avez donné le français, mais nous sommes pas obligés de l'utiliser comme vous le voulez » Youth Languages in Africa

by Maarten Mous and Roland Kießling

The youth in several African cities are continuously creating their own language, which could be ... more The youth in several African cities are continuously creating their own language, which could be identified as a distinct type of sociolect by both functional and formal criteria. An investigation of lexical items and the way they are formed reveals a preference for the use of certain strategies of manipulation, characteristic of anti-languages in general and contrasting clearly with the strategies involved in other cases of deliberate language manipulation in Africa, such as professional jargons, guild languages and in-law respect languages. In contrast to speech practices of the youth in European contexts, African youth languages stand out in five major respects: (a) they have their own names, are very distinct and unanimously identifiable; (b) they typically draw on lexical resources from several indigenous languages to create hybridity; (c) apart from their primary function to create a powerful icon of opposition identity, they have the additional function to transcend ethnicity in the multiethnic African states; (d) they tend to easily expand beyond the group of the youth and to set new norms as languages of wider communication in the cities; (e) they are the result of a process of creative appropriation of ex-colonial official languages which have become institutionalised as vertical media of exclusion by exoglossic language regimes.

The Oral and Written Interface in SMS: Technologically mediated communication in Kenya

Low-Educated Second Language and …, Jan 1, 2009

The linguistic properties of lexical manipulation and its relevance for Ma'á

The mixed language debate: theoretical and empirical …, Jan 1, 2003

... for a walk (3) mxatu tree, afterbirth mti tree, afterbirth hluku to drop, give birth gwisha t... more ... for a walk (3) mxatu tree, afterbirth mti tree, afterbirth hluku to drop, give birth gwisha to drop, give birth hi to sew, mould chuma to sew ... In the hlonipha register of respect the Zulu word for&#x27;sky&#x27;, izulu is replaced by the archaic word ibinga (Van Rooyen 1968: 42) In the Iraqw register ...

The Tanzanian Rift Valley area

by Roland Kießling, Derek Nurse, and Maarten Mous

A Linguistic Geography of Africa, 2007