We study Dutch taxpayers' preferences in designing a social welfare system. With help of a choice... more We study Dutch taxpayers' preferences in designing a social welfare system. With help of a choice experiment we ask 2000 respondents to make choices between policy packages, characterized by different levels of income for welfare recipients, of obligations, of sanctions, of earnings and gifts disregards, and of taxes for the average Dutch household. The results show that respondents are in favor of relatively generous benefits and disregards, but also find monitoring and activation very important. Both self-interest and altruism, as well as trust in the government, appear to shape respondents' preferences. Respondents' preferences line up with their voting behavior.
hina's rapid rise on the global economic stage has substantial and unequal employment effects in ... more hina's rapid rise on the global economic stage has substantial and unequal employment effects in advanced industrialized democracies given China's large volume of low-wage labor. Thus far, these effects have not been analyzed in the comparative political economy literature. Building on pooled time-series data, we analyze the effects of Chinese trade competition across 17 sectors in 18 countries. We devote attention to a new channel, increased competition from China in foreign export markets. Our empirical findings reveal overall employment declines in sectors more exposed to Chinese imports. Furthermore, our results suggest that employment effects are not equally shared across skill levels, as the share of hours worked worsens for low-skilled workers.
This paper assesses the strengths and shortcomings of multi-value Qualitative Comparative Analysi... more This paper assesses the strengths and shortcomings of multi-value Qualitative Comparative Analysis (mvQCA), a comparative technique for small to medium size datasets that has been integrated in the TOSMANA software developed by Lasse Cronqvist. Its main difference with Charles Ragin´s ´crisp-set´ QCA (csQCA), which only allows for conditions with 0 or 1 values, is that the dataset can also contain causal conditions with three or more categories. MvQCA thus avoids relatively crude dichotomization and arguably better captures the richness of information of the raw data. Unlike ´fuzzy-set´ QCA (fsQCA), developed by Ragin to go beyond the classic dichotomous approach, mvQCA is still based on dichotomous outcomes and applies Boolean minimization principles in a similar way to csQCA. Its major advantage, according to its proponents, is that it deals better with the classic QCA problem of contradictory configurations where cases with the same explanatory characteristics display different outcomes and in principle cannot be taken into account for logical minimization. We discuss the logical status of mvQCA, its impact on limited diversity, and present a re-analysis of a recent paper to show how mvQCA uses threshold-setting to solve contradictions. 1 We thank Rapaela Schlicht and Simone Ledermann for their helpful comments and suggestions.
Until recently, social assistance and minimum income benefi ts have received relatively little at... more Until recently, social assistance and minimum income benefi ts have received relatively little attention in the comparative welfare state literature. Relying on two new indicators, this paper examines the development of minimum income benefi ts across 26 EU and other OECD countries. Th e real benefi t level, the fi rst indicator, is relatively easy to interpret, but international comparisons require adjustments for exchange rates and purchasing power, which can introduce variation that is not related to underlying policy changes. In the second indicator, the net minimum income replacement rate, this disadvantage is cancelled out by construction. Our analysis shows that real benefi t levels increased in most countries, whilst replacement rates declined on average. A subsequent qualitative analysis of the changes in the benefi t levels confi rms that the increased benefi t levels refl ect policy changes and that the lower replacement rates do not refl ect benefi t cuts, but relatively larger wage increases. Such a widening gap between benefi t levels and wages is in line with the policy agenda of 'making work pay'. Finally, by analysing the extent to which changes in quantitative indicators refl ect actual policy changes, this paper seeks to make a methodological contribution to the ongoing debate on the 'dependent variable problem' in the welfare state literature.
Prior studies have suggested that higher public pensions are associated with lower income inequal... more Prior studies have suggested that higher public pensions are associated with lower income inequality among the elderly, whereas the reverse is true for private pensions. Van Vliet et al. (2012) empirically test whether relative shifts from public to private pension schemes entail higher levels of income inequality among the elderly using panel data from the OECD SOCX and the EU-SILC databases. Contrasting earlier empirical studies using either cross-sectional or time-series data, they do not find evidence that shifts from public to private pension provision are associated with higher levels of income inequality or poverty among the elderly. The aim of the current article is to extend the analysis of Van Vliet et al. by: (1) adding additional countries; (2) adding additionally available years; and (3) using revised OECD SOCX data. In contrast to Van Vliet et al., we find that a greater relative importance of private pensions is associated with higher levels of income inequality and poverty among the elderly. A central explanation of the difference in conclusions stems from the revision of OECD SOCX data.
The ageing of populations and hampering economic growth increase pressure on public finances in m... more The ageing of populations and hampering economic growth increase pressure on public finances in many advanced capitalist societies. Consequently, governments have adopted pension reforms in order to relieve pressure on public finances. These reforms have contributed to a relative shift from public to private pension schemes. Since private social security plans are generally less redistributive than public social security, it can be hypothesized that the privatization of pension plans has led to higher levels of income inequality among the elderly. Existing empirical literature has mainly focused on cross-country comparisons at one moment in time or on time-series for a single country. This study contributes to the income inequality and pension literature by empirically analysing the distributional effects of shifts from public to private pension provision in 15 European countries for the period 1995-2007, using pooled time series cross-section regression analyses. Remarkably, we do not find empirical evidence that shifts from public to private pension provision lead to higher levels of income inequality or poverty among elderly people. The results appear to be robust for a wide range of econometric specifications.
A number of studies suggest that the Europeanization process has a profound impact on national la... more A number of studies suggest that the Europeanization process has a profound impact on national labour market policies, but fairly little research has been devoted to the development of social assistance benefit schemes across countries and over time. Relying on two new indicators, benefit levels and replacement rates, we examine the impact of the Lisbon Strategy on national social assistance policies. We find no robust effects for the first years of the Lisbon Strategy. However, after its re-launch in 2005, the Lisbon Strategy has significantly contributed to increases of national social assistance benefit levels. In addition to the Lisbon Strategy, domestic political, institutional and several economic factors also have a significant impact on social assistance benefits.
Flexicurity is at the heart of European policy debates. Its aim is to overcome the tensions betwe... more Flexicurity is at the heart of European policy debates. Its aim is to overcome the tensions between labour market flexibility on the one hand, and the provision of social security for workers on the other hand. To date, there is little insight into whether flexicurity policies have been adopted across the European Union. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to analyse to what extent labour market policies have been reformed along the lines of the flexicurity concept across 18 European countries over the period 1985-2008. Focusing on the main axes of the flexicurity concept, new datasets are used to examine changes in employment protection legislation, unemployment benefits and active labour market policies. Data on the strictness of employment regulation indicate that reforms have been influenced by labour market insiders, since the level of flexibility has been increased more for temporary employment, the labour market outsiders, than for regular employment, the insiders. Although gross unemployment replacement rates suggest that unemployment benefits have become more generous, net replacement rates indicate that the level of income security from benefits actually has been decreased. Moreover, data illustrate that larger shares of European labour forces have temporary contracts. As such, the gap between insiders and outsiders on the labour market has been increased. This development is contrary to the goals of the European Commission.
The recent revival of protectionism has prompted further interests in the domestic employment eff... more The recent revival of protectionism has prompted further interests in the domestic employment effects of imports, in particular from China. Several studies have found negative employment effects of Chinese imports for the U.S. This column examines the association between Chinese imports and domestic employment effects in 17 sectors across 18 OECD countries with diverse labour market institutions. Results indicate that employment went down in sectors that are more exposed to imports from China, in particular for low-skilled workers.
Olaf van Vliet (Universiteit Leiden) en Stefan Thewissen (OESO) 1 Vrees voor werkgelegenheidseffe... more Olaf van Vliet (Universiteit Leiden) en Stefan Thewissen (OESO) 1 Vrees voor werkgelegenheidseffecten van import vormen een belangrijke aanzet tot de dreigende handelsoorlog tussen de Verenigde Staten, de Europese Unie en China. Voor de Verenigde Staten is er bewijs voor dat Chinese import leidt tot een krimp in lokale werkgelegenheid. Olaf van Vliet en Stefan Thewissen onderzoeken of deze effecten zich ook breder voordoen, in 17 sectoren in 18 OESO-landen met verschillende arbeidsmarktinstituties. De resultaten laten zien dat de werkgelegenheid is afgenomen in sectoren die sterker zijn blootgesteld aan import vanuit China, en dat de werkgelegenheidsafname sterker is onder laagopgeleide werknemers. De export van Chinese goederen naar westerse economieën is explosief toegenomen in de afgelopen twee decennia. Als gevolg van de liberalisering van 'de Chinese economie, een sterke productiviteitsgroei en de toetreding van het land tot de Wereldhandelsorganisatie in 2001, is China binnen twee decennia uitgegroeid tot de grootste mondiale exporteur van goederen. Wat zijn de werkgelegenheidseffecten van deze snelle groei van China's export voor de werknemers in OESO-landen? Leidt de verplaatsing van productie tot een afname van de lokale werkgelegenheid in OESO-landen? Zijn deze effecten sterker voor laagopgeleiden, gegeven het grote aantal laagbetaalde arbeidskrachten in China? Deze vragen zijn nog relevanter geworden sinds de recente initiatieven van de regering-Trump en van de EU om importheffingen in te voeren op Chinese import. Recente studies laten sterke binnenlandse werkgelegenheidseffecten zien als gevolg van de groeiende Chinese import. Dit betreft studies die steeds zijn uitgevoerd voor één land, met name voor de Verenigde Staten (Autor e.a., 2013; Acemoglu e.a., 2016), maar ook voor bijvoorbeeld Noorwegen (Balsvik e.a., 2015). Wij analyseren de werkgelegenheidseffecten in een panel van 17 sectoren in 18 OESO-landen (Thewissen en Van Vliet, te verschijnen). Daarbij richten we ons op de omvang van de totale werkgelegenheid van een sector en op het aandeel gewerkte uren door laagopgeleide werknemers binnen een sector. Met deze studie introduceren we twee noviteiten. De eerste heeft betrekking op de internationaal-vergelijkende opzet op basis van een brede groep landen. Hiermee pogen we meer algemene uitspraken te kunnen doen over de arbeidsmarkteffecten van Chinese 1 Dit artikel en de academische publicatie waarop het artikel is gebaseerd zijn geschreven voordat Stefan Thewissen bij de OESO werkzaam werd. Het artikel weerspiegelt de opvattingen van de auteurs en niet noodzakelijk die van de OESO of haar lidstaten. De titel en eerste zinnen van dit artikel mogen zonder toestemming worden overgenomen met de bronvermelding Me Judice en, indien online, een link naar het artikel. Volledige overname is slechts beperkt toegestaan. Voor meer informatie, zie onze copyright richtlijnen.
Academic literature on international comparisons of social policy has focused on programmes such ... more Academic literature on international comparisons of social policy has focused on programmes such as unemployment benefits and old age pensions. In contrast, social assistance benefits have received considerably less attention. This is remarkable given the importance of social assistance and minimum income benefit schemes. For many households in Europe and other OECD countries these benefits provide an important safeguard against low income and poverty. This is even more the case
With the adoption of the European Employment Strategy and the Lisbon strategy, convergence of soc... more With the adoption of the European Employment Strategy and the Lisbon strategy, convergence of social protection goals and labour market policies across EU member states have become important objectives at the European agenda. Embedded in convergence, Europeanisation and welfare state literature, this thesis examines the role of European integration in changing social policies. This study shows that since 1995 social expenditures of EU member states have converged and increased on average, whereas non-EU countries have diverged, controlled for cyclical and demographic effects. This EU-specific convergence pattern of social expenditures leads us to the subsequent question whether national policies also converged. Relying on disaggregated expenditure data and indicators for several policy instruments, I found that labour market policies have become increasingly activating, whereas non-EU countries have not. Although EU member states tend to follow the policies of the European guidelines and recommendations, this thesis provides evidence that some active labour market policy instruments are more eligible to converge than others.
Given the ageing of the populations in many Western countries, older people constitute an importa... more Given the ageing of the populations in many Western countries, older people constitute an important group in the analysis of poverty. In this chapter, we examine the poverty incidence among older people across LIS countries, relying on data from the Luxembourg Income Study. The data show that poverty rates are substantially reduced by redistribution via tax/benefit systems (mainly via pension benefits). Furthermore, the data show that old-age poverty rates and the antipoverty effect of pensions vary substantially across countries. Finally, in almost all countries, the poverty rates based on disposable income declined between 1985 and 2013. The reason for this reduction in old-age poverty is the increase of the poverty reducing effect of pension benefits). Interestingly, the trend in the poverty rates of the working age population differs from that of older people; in most countries of our sample, the poverty incidence increased for the working age population. However, it should be noted that in most Western countries, poverty rates for older people are still at a higher level than for the working age population.
Online_Appendix for Minimum income protection and EU coordination by Jinxian Wang, Olaf van Vliet... more Online_Appendix for Minimum income protection and EU coordination by Jinxian Wang, Olaf van Vliet, and Kees Goudswaard in European Journal of Social Security
We study Dutch taxpayers' preferences in designing a social welfare system. With help of a choice... more We study Dutch taxpayers' preferences in designing a social welfare system. With help of a choice experiment we ask 2000 respondents to make choices between policy packages, characterized by different levels of income for welfare recipients, of obligations, of sanctions, of earnings and gifts disregards, and of taxes for the average Dutch household. The results show that respondents are in favor of relatively generous benefits and disregards, but also find monitoring and activation very important. Both self-interest and altruism, as well as trust in the government, appear to shape respondents' preferences. Respondents' preferences line up with their voting behavior.
hina's rapid rise on the global economic stage has substantial and unequal employment effects in ... more hina's rapid rise on the global economic stage has substantial and unequal employment effects in advanced industrialized democracies given China's large volume of low-wage labor. Thus far, these effects have not been analyzed in the comparative political economy literature. Building on pooled time-series data, we analyze the effects of Chinese trade competition across 17 sectors in 18 countries. We devote attention to a new channel, increased competition from China in foreign export markets. Our empirical findings reveal overall employment declines in sectors more exposed to Chinese imports. Furthermore, our results suggest that employment effects are not equally shared across skill levels, as the share of hours worked worsens for low-skilled workers.
This paper assesses the strengths and shortcomings of multi-value Qualitative Comparative Analysi... more This paper assesses the strengths and shortcomings of multi-value Qualitative Comparative Analysis (mvQCA), a comparative technique for small to medium size datasets that has been integrated in the TOSMANA software developed by Lasse Cronqvist. Its main difference with Charles Ragin´s ´crisp-set´ QCA (csQCA), which only allows for conditions with 0 or 1 values, is that the dataset can also contain causal conditions with three or more categories. MvQCA thus avoids relatively crude dichotomization and arguably better captures the richness of information of the raw data. Unlike ´fuzzy-set´ QCA (fsQCA), developed by Ragin to go beyond the classic dichotomous approach, mvQCA is still based on dichotomous outcomes and applies Boolean minimization principles in a similar way to csQCA. Its major advantage, according to its proponents, is that it deals better with the classic QCA problem of contradictory configurations where cases with the same explanatory characteristics display different outcomes and in principle cannot be taken into account for logical minimization. We discuss the logical status of mvQCA, its impact on limited diversity, and present a re-analysis of a recent paper to show how mvQCA uses threshold-setting to solve contradictions. 1 We thank Rapaela Schlicht and Simone Ledermann for their helpful comments and suggestions.
Until recently, social assistance and minimum income benefi ts have received relatively little at... more Until recently, social assistance and minimum income benefi ts have received relatively little attention in the comparative welfare state literature. Relying on two new indicators, this paper examines the development of minimum income benefi ts across 26 EU and other OECD countries. Th e real benefi t level, the fi rst indicator, is relatively easy to interpret, but international comparisons require adjustments for exchange rates and purchasing power, which can introduce variation that is not related to underlying policy changes. In the second indicator, the net minimum income replacement rate, this disadvantage is cancelled out by construction. Our analysis shows that real benefi t levels increased in most countries, whilst replacement rates declined on average. A subsequent qualitative analysis of the changes in the benefi t levels confi rms that the increased benefi t levels refl ect policy changes and that the lower replacement rates do not refl ect benefi t cuts, but relatively larger wage increases. Such a widening gap between benefi t levels and wages is in line with the policy agenda of 'making work pay'. Finally, by analysing the extent to which changes in quantitative indicators refl ect actual policy changes, this paper seeks to make a methodological contribution to the ongoing debate on the 'dependent variable problem' in the welfare state literature.
Prior studies have suggested that higher public pensions are associated with lower income inequal... more Prior studies have suggested that higher public pensions are associated with lower income inequality among the elderly, whereas the reverse is true for private pensions. Van Vliet et al. (2012) empirically test whether relative shifts from public to private pension schemes entail higher levels of income inequality among the elderly using panel data from the OECD SOCX and the EU-SILC databases. Contrasting earlier empirical studies using either cross-sectional or time-series data, they do not find evidence that shifts from public to private pension provision are associated with higher levels of income inequality or poverty among the elderly. The aim of the current article is to extend the analysis of Van Vliet et al. by: (1) adding additional countries; (2) adding additionally available years; and (3) using revised OECD SOCX data. In contrast to Van Vliet et al., we find that a greater relative importance of private pensions is associated with higher levels of income inequality and poverty among the elderly. A central explanation of the difference in conclusions stems from the revision of OECD SOCX data.
The ageing of populations and hampering economic growth increase pressure on public finances in m... more The ageing of populations and hampering economic growth increase pressure on public finances in many advanced capitalist societies. Consequently, governments have adopted pension reforms in order to relieve pressure on public finances. These reforms have contributed to a relative shift from public to private pension schemes. Since private social security plans are generally less redistributive than public social security, it can be hypothesized that the privatization of pension plans has led to higher levels of income inequality among the elderly. Existing empirical literature has mainly focused on cross-country comparisons at one moment in time or on time-series for a single country. This study contributes to the income inequality and pension literature by empirically analysing the distributional effects of shifts from public to private pension provision in 15 European countries for the period 1995-2007, using pooled time series cross-section regression analyses. Remarkably, we do not find empirical evidence that shifts from public to private pension provision lead to higher levels of income inequality or poverty among elderly people. The results appear to be robust for a wide range of econometric specifications.
A number of studies suggest that the Europeanization process has a profound impact on national la... more A number of studies suggest that the Europeanization process has a profound impact on national labour market policies, but fairly little research has been devoted to the development of social assistance benefit schemes across countries and over time. Relying on two new indicators, benefit levels and replacement rates, we examine the impact of the Lisbon Strategy on national social assistance policies. We find no robust effects for the first years of the Lisbon Strategy. However, after its re-launch in 2005, the Lisbon Strategy has significantly contributed to increases of national social assistance benefit levels. In addition to the Lisbon Strategy, domestic political, institutional and several economic factors also have a significant impact on social assistance benefits.
Flexicurity is at the heart of European policy debates. Its aim is to overcome the tensions betwe... more Flexicurity is at the heart of European policy debates. Its aim is to overcome the tensions between labour market flexibility on the one hand, and the provision of social security for workers on the other hand. To date, there is little insight into whether flexicurity policies have been adopted across the European Union. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to analyse to what extent labour market policies have been reformed along the lines of the flexicurity concept across 18 European countries over the period 1985-2008. Focusing on the main axes of the flexicurity concept, new datasets are used to examine changes in employment protection legislation, unemployment benefits and active labour market policies. Data on the strictness of employment regulation indicate that reforms have been influenced by labour market insiders, since the level of flexibility has been increased more for temporary employment, the labour market outsiders, than for regular employment, the insiders. Although gross unemployment replacement rates suggest that unemployment benefits have become more generous, net replacement rates indicate that the level of income security from benefits actually has been decreased. Moreover, data illustrate that larger shares of European labour forces have temporary contracts. As such, the gap between insiders and outsiders on the labour market has been increased. This development is contrary to the goals of the European Commission.
The recent revival of protectionism has prompted further interests in the domestic employment eff... more The recent revival of protectionism has prompted further interests in the domestic employment effects of imports, in particular from China. Several studies have found negative employment effects of Chinese imports for the U.S. This column examines the association between Chinese imports and domestic employment effects in 17 sectors across 18 OECD countries with diverse labour market institutions. Results indicate that employment went down in sectors that are more exposed to imports from China, in particular for low-skilled workers.
Olaf van Vliet (Universiteit Leiden) en Stefan Thewissen (OESO) 1 Vrees voor werkgelegenheidseffe... more Olaf van Vliet (Universiteit Leiden) en Stefan Thewissen (OESO) 1 Vrees voor werkgelegenheidseffecten van import vormen een belangrijke aanzet tot de dreigende handelsoorlog tussen de Verenigde Staten, de Europese Unie en China. Voor de Verenigde Staten is er bewijs voor dat Chinese import leidt tot een krimp in lokale werkgelegenheid. Olaf van Vliet en Stefan Thewissen onderzoeken of deze effecten zich ook breder voordoen, in 17 sectoren in 18 OESO-landen met verschillende arbeidsmarktinstituties. De resultaten laten zien dat de werkgelegenheid is afgenomen in sectoren die sterker zijn blootgesteld aan import vanuit China, en dat de werkgelegenheidsafname sterker is onder laagopgeleide werknemers. De export van Chinese goederen naar westerse economieën is explosief toegenomen in de afgelopen twee decennia. Als gevolg van de liberalisering van 'de Chinese economie, een sterke productiviteitsgroei en de toetreding van het land tot de Wereldhandelsorganisatie in 2001, is China binnen twee decennia uitgegroeid tot de grootste mondiale exporteur van goederen. Wat zijn de werkgelegenheidseffecten van deze snelle groei van China's export voor de werknemers in OESO-landen? Leidt de verplaatsing van productie tot een afname van de lokale werkgelegenheid in OESO-landen? Zijn deze effecten sterker voor laagopgeleiden, gegeven het grote aantal laagbetaalde arbeidskrachten in China? Deze vragen zijn nog relevanter geworden sinds de recente initiatieven van de regering-Trump en van de EU om importheffingen in te voeren op Chinese import. Recente studies laten sterke binnenlandse werkgelegenheidseffecten zien als gevolg van de groeiende Chinese import. Dit betreft studies die steeds zijn uitgevoerd voor één land, met name voor de Verenigde Staten (Autor e.a., 2013; Acemoglu e.a., 2016), maar ook voor bijvoorbeeld Noorwegen (Balsvik e.a., 2015). Wij analyseren de werkgelegenheidseffecten in een panel van 17 sectoren in 18 OESO-landen (Thewissen en Van Vliet, te verschijnen). Daarbij richten we ons op de omvang van de totale werkgelegenheid van een sector en op het aandeel gewerkte uren door laagopgeleide werknemers binnen een sector. Met deze studie introduceren we twee noviteiten. De eerste heeft betrekking op de internationaal-vergelijkende opzet op basis van een brede groep landen. Hiermee pogen we meer algemene uitspraken te kunnen doen over de arbeidsmarkteffecten van Chinese 1 Dit artikel en de academische publicatie waarop het artikel is gebaseerd zijn geschreven voordat Stefan Thewissen bij de OESO werkzaam werd. Het artikel weerspiegelt de opvattingen van de auteurs en niet noodzakelijk die van de OESO of haar lidstaten. De titel en eerste zinnen van dit artikel mogen zonder toestemming worden overgenomen met de bronvermelding Me Judice en, indien online, een link naar het artikel. Volledige overname is slechts beperkt toegestaan. Voor meer informatie, zie onze copyright richtlijnen.
Academic literature on international comparisons of social policy has focused on programmes such ... more Academic literature on international comparisons of social policy has focused on programmes such as unemployment benefits and old age pensions. In contrast, social assistance benefits have received considerably less attention. This is remarkable given the importance of social assistance and minimum income benefit schemes. For many households in Europe and other OECD countries these benefits provide an important safeguard against low income and poverty. This is even more the case
With the adoption of the European Employment Strategy and the Lisbon strategy, convergence of soc... more With the adoption of the European Employment Strategy and the Lisbon strategy, convergence of social protection goals and labour market policies across EU member states have become important objectives at the European agenda. Embedded in convergence, Europeanisation and welfare state literature, this thesis examines the role of European integration in changing social policies. This study shows that since 1995 social expenditures of EU member states have converged and increased on average, whereas non-EU countries have diverged, controlled for cyclical and demographic effects. This EU-specific convergence pattern of social expenditures leads us to the subsequent question whether national policies also converged. Relying on disaggregated expenditure data and indicators for several policy instruments, I found that labour market policies have become increasingly activating, whereas non-EU countries have not. Although EU member states tend to follow the policies of the European guidelines and recommendations, this thesis provides evidence that some active labour market policy instruments are more eligible to converge than others.
Given the ageing of the populations in many Western countries, older people constitute an importa... more Given the ageing of the populations in many Western countries, older people constitute an important group in the analysis of poverty. In this chapter, we examine the poverty incidence among older people across LIS countries, relying on data from the Luxembourg Income Study. The data show that poverty rates are substantially reduced by redistribution via tax/benefit systems (mainly via pension benefits). Furthermore, the data show that old-age poverty rates and the antipoverty effect of pensions vary substantially across countries. Finally, in almost all countries, the poverty rates based on disposable income declined between 1985 and 2013. The reason for this reduction in old-age poverty is the increase of the poverty reducing effect of pension benefits). Interestingly, the trend in the poverty rates of the working age population differs from that of older people; in most countries of our sample, the poverty incidence increased for the working age population. However, it should be noted that in most Western countries, poverty rates for older people are still at a higher level than for the working age population.
Online_Appendix for Minimum income protection and EU coordination by Jinxian Wang, Olaf van Vliet... more Online_Appendix for Minimum income protection and EU coordination by Jinxian Wang, Olaf van Vliet, and Kees Goudswaard in European Journal of Social Security
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