Space Mission Analysis Branch

In this paper, we review and discuss a number of age-related changes in cognitive capabilities and their implications on driving performance and safety. Previous research has shown that older drivers can exhibit performance degradation and a reduction in safety margin because of the relative decline in sensory/perceptual, cognitive abilities, as well as the slowing in motor response. We begin by reviewing and evaluating extant theories of cognitive change and the mechanisms that underlie such variation. Then we examine how these changes are manifested and influenced by advancing age. Third, we examine the impact of these age-related cognitive changes on driver performance. Finally, we outline the importance of these findings for intelligent transportation systems design, driver distraction and driver workload, and ultimately transportation safety in an aging society.

By the year 2030 one in every five Americans will be 65 years of age or older. Although future older adults are likely to be healthier and more active than their peers of today, age-related changes are inevitable and are bound to affect functional abilities especially as they relate to driving. With regard to physical changes, the driving task predominantly involves the execution of motor responses that are clearly subject to age-related declines. Furthermore, with age, a number of changes occur in the human eye that make the visual system operate less efficiently. In addition, declines in the performance of the auditory and vestibular systems and in spatial abilities also compromise driving and mobility. The present paper provides a review of age-related declines in physical and perceptual functioning and discusses their impact on the driving performance and safe mobility of older adults.

In this paper, we review and discuss a number of age-related changes in cognitive capabilities and their implications on driving performance and safety. Previous research has shown that older drivers can exhibit performance degradation and a reduction in safety margin because of the relative decline in sensory/perceptual, cognitive abilities, as well as the slowing in motor response. We begin by reviewing and evaluating extant theories of cognitive change and the mechanisms that underlie such variation. Then we examine how these changes are manifested and influenced by advancing age. Third, we examine the impact of these age-related cognitive changes on driver performance. Finally, we outline the importance of these findings for intelligent transportation systems design, driver distraction and driver workload, and ultimately transportation safety in an aging society.

Aviation safety depends on minimizing error in all facets of the system. While the role of #ightdeck human error has received much emphasis, recently more attention has been directed toward reducing human error in maintenance and inspection. Aviation maintenance and inspection tasks are part of a complex organization, where individuals perform varied tasks in an environment with time pressures, sparse feedback, and sometimes di$cult ambient conditions. These situational characteristics, in combination with generic human erring tendencies, result in varied forms of error. The most severe result in accidents and loss of life. For example, failure to replace horizontal stabilizer screws on a Continental Express aircraft resulted in in-#ight leading-edge separation and 14 fatalities. While errors resulting in accidents are most salient, maintenance and inspection errors have other important consequences (e.g., air turn-backs, delays in aircraft availability, gate returns, diversions to alternate airports) which impede productivity and e$ciency of airline operations, and inconvenience the #ying public. This paper reviews current approaches to identifying, reporting, and managing human error in aviation maintenance and inspection. As foundation for this discussion, we provide an overview of approaches to investigating human error, and a description of aviation maintenance and inspection tasks and environmental characteristics. Relevance to industry Following an introductory description of its tasks and environmental characteristics, this paper reviews methods and tools for identifying, reporting, and managing human error in aviation maintenance and inspection. 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

This paper describes a collaborative FAA and NASA experiment using 22 commercial airline pilots to determine the effect of using Datalink Communication (Data Comm) to issue messages in busy, terminal area operations. Four conditions were defined that span current day to future flight deck equipage levels (voice communication only, Data Comm only, Data Comm with Moving Map Display, Data Comm with Moving Map displaying taxi route), and each condition was used to create an arrival and a departure scenario at the Boston Logan Airport. These eight scenarios were repeated twice for a total of 16 scenarios for each of the eleven crews. Quantitative data was collected on subject reaction time and eye tracking information. Questionnaires collected subjective feedback on workload and acceptability to the flight crew for using Data Comm in a busy terminal area. 95% of the Data Comm messages were responded to by the flight crew within one minute; however, post experiment debrief comments revealed almost unanimous consensus that two minutes was a reasonable expectation for crew response. Eye tracking data indicated an insignificant decrease in head-up time for the Pilot Flying when Data Comm was introduced; however, the Pilot Monitoring had significantly less head-up time. Data Comm workload was rated as operationally acceptable by both crew members in all conditions in flight at any altitude above the Final Approach Fix in terms of response time and workload. Results also indicate the use of Data Comm during surface operations was acceptable, the exception being the simultaneous use of voice, Data Comm, and audio chime required for an aircraft to cross an active runway. Many crews reported they believed Data Comm messages would be acceptable after the Final Approach Fix or to cross a runway if the message was not accompanied by a chime and there was not a requirement to immediately respond to the uplink message.

This document provides such a philosophy,expressed as a set of guiding design principles,and accompanied by information that will help focusattention on flight crew issues earlier and iterativelywithin the design process.The philosophy assumes that the flight crew willremain an integral component of safe and efficientcommercial flight for the foreseeable future becausehuman skills, knowledge, and flexibility are required inthe operation of complex

In order to enable long-duration human exploration beyond low-Earth orbit, the risks associated with exposure of astronaut crews to space radiation must be mitigated with practical and affordable solutions. The space radiation environment beyond the magnetosphere is primarily a combination of two types of radiation: galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and solar particle events (SPE). While mitigating GCR exposure remains an open issue, reducing astronaut exposure to SPEs is achievable through material shielding because they are made up primarily of medium-energy protons. In order to ensure astronaut safety for long durations beyond low-Earth orbit, SPE radiation exposure must be mitigated. However, the increasingly demanding spacecraft propulsive performance for these ambitious missions requires minimal mass and volume radiation shielding solutions which leverage available multi-functional habitat structures and logistics as much as possible. This paper describes the efforts of NASA's RadWorks Advanced Exploration Systems (AES) Project to design two minimal mass SPE radiation shelter concepts leveraging available resources: one based upon reconfiguring habitat interiors to create a centralized protection area and one based upon augmenting individual crew quarters with waterwalls and logistics. Discussion items include the design features of the concepts, a radiation analysis of their implementations, an assessment of the parasitic mass of each concept, and the result of a human in the loop evaluation performed to drive out design and operational issues.

This paper describes a collaborative FAA and NASA experiment using 22 commercial airline pilots to determine the effect of using Datalink Communication (Data Comm) to issue messages in busy, terminal area operations. Four conditions were defined that span current day to future flight deck equipage levels (voice communication only, Data Comm only, Data Comm with Moving Map Display, Data Comm with Moving Map displaying taxi route), and each condition was used to create an arrival and a departure scenario at the Boston Logan Airport. These eight scenarios were repeated twice for a total of 16 scenarios for each of the eleven crews. Quantitative data was collected on subject reaction time and eye tracking information. Questionnaires collected subjective feedback on workload and acceptability to the flight crew for using Data Comm in a busy terminal area. 95% of the Data Comm messages were responded to by the flight crew within one minute; however, post experiment debrief comments revealed almost unanimous consensus that two minutes was a reasonable expectation for crew response. Eye tracking data indicated an insignificant decrease in head-up time for the Pilot Flying when Data Comm was introduced; however, the Pilot Monitoring had significantly less head-up time. Data Comm workload was rated as operationally acceptable by both crew members in all conditions in flight at any altitude above the Final Approach Fix in terms of response time and workload. Results also indicate the use of Data Comm during surface operations was acceptable, the exception being the simultaneous use of voice, Data Comm, and audio chime required for an aircraft to cross an active runway. Many crews reported they believed Data Comm messages would be acceptable after the Final Approach Fix or to cross a runway if the message was not accompanied by a chime and there was not a requirement to immediately respond to the uplink message.

This study investigated the relative acceptance of different avionics implementations that present Flightdeck Interval Management (FIM) speeds and speed deviations to commercial pilots, and for indications of conditions that require action. Results indicate a clear preference for an Avionics condition where target speed information was provided in the primary flight display, relevant traffic information was provided in the navigational display, IM clearance information and conformance information was provided in the Multi-function Control Display Unit (MCDU), and the engine-indicating and crewalerting system (EICAS) display showed conformance deviation alerts; and a condition in which all this information was presented only in an Electronic Flight Bag (EFB)-like display (with extended functionality) implemented under the side window for both pilots. Other Avionics conditions tested were less desirable. These were conditions in which the EFB was mounted aft of, and below the side window-with and without an auxiliary display that repeated speed target and conformance information in the primary field of view. Results also indicate a preference for aural indications to direct attention to new speed targets, as a reminder to enter these when not done in a timely manner, and to convey when the aircraft has deviated significantly from the calculated FIM speed profile. The aural indications, thresholds for reminders and conformance indications used in this study were found to be appropriate. In general FIM, as implemented in this study, was perceived as having no deleterious effect on workload or crew coordination; and, under some conditions, was reported to have improved situation awareness of arrival speeds and general conditions during approach and descent.

Aviation suffers many accidents due to the lack of good weather information in flight. Existing aviation weather information is difficult to obtain when it is most needed and is not well formatted for in-flight use. Because it is generally presented aurally, aviation weather information is difficult to integrate with spatial flight information and retain for reference. Efforts, by NASA's Aviation Weather Information (AWIN) team and others, to improve weather information accessibility, usability and decision aiding will enhance General Aviation (GA) pilots' weather situation awareness and decision-making and therefore should improve the safety of GA flight. Consideration of pilots' economic concerns will ensure that in-flight weather information systems are financially accessible to GA pilots as well. The purpose of this survey was to describe how aviation operator communities gather and use weather information as well as how weather related decisions are made between fli...

If our goal is to improve safety through machine, interface, and training design, then we must define a metric of flightdeck safety that is usable in the design process. Current measures associated with our notions of "good" pilot performance and ultimate safety of flightdeck performance fail to provide an adequate index of safe flightdeck performance for design evaluation purposes. The goal of this research effort is to devise a safety index and method that allows us to evaluate flightdeck performance holistically and in a naturalistic experiment. This paper uses Reason's model of accident causation (1990) as a basis for measuring safety, and proposes a relational database system and method for 1) defining a safety index of flightdeck performance, and 2) evaluating the "safety" afforded by flightdeck performance for the purpose of design iteration. Methodological considerations, limitations, and benefits are discussed as well as extensions to this work. INTR...

This project explored the possibility of predicting pilot situational awareness (SA) using human performance modeling techniques for the purpose of evaluating developing cockpit systems. The Improved Performance Research Integration Tool (IMPRINT) was combined with the Adaptive Control of Thought-Rational (ACT-R) cognitive modeling architecture to produce a tool that can model both the discrete tasks of pilots and the cognitive processes associated with SA. The techniques for using this tool to predict SA were demonstrated using the newly developed Aviation Weather Information (AWIN) system. By providing an SA prediction tool to cockpit system designers, cockpit concepts can be assessed early in the design process while providing a cost-effective complement to the traditional pilotin-the-loop experiments and data collection techniques.

Maintaining civil aircraft air-worthiness requires the reliability of a complex, socio-technic system. This system's reliability is dependent on the reliability of its components (i.e, equipment, inspectors, the physical environment), and on how reliably these components interact. Error is the measurement counterpart of reliability, and most, if not all, errors can be classified at some stages as human errors. This paper uses the data collected from the task analyses of many inspection tasks (Shepherd, et al., 1991), and the human factors literature on human errors to derive an overall framework for error studies in inspection. This framework interprets the hangar-floor observations in terms of current theories of human error causation, and then uses this interpretation to list strategies for reducing or eliminating errors. The ultimate aim of this work is to ensure that data and theories of human error from other fields (e.g., nuclear power, chemical plants, transportation systems) can contribute to reducing the error potential of aviation maintenance and inspection. The assessment of human error in complex systems is currently undergoing somewhat of a renaissance (Brown and Groeger, 1990). Classification schemes of errors have expanded from the early "omission/ commission" classification (Swain and Guttman, 1983 and Meister, 1971) to more behavioral-based classifications (e.g.

This report was written under the auspices of NASA's High Speed Research (HSR) program as part of the Flight Deck Design and Integration element led by Dr. Kathy Abbott. We greatly appreciate the substantial contribution of the many participants involved in the development and review of this document. This included HSR program participants at

This paper reports preliminary and partial results of a flight experiment to address how General Aviation (GA) pilots use weather cues to make flight decisions. This research presents pilots with weather cue conditions typically available to GA pilots in visual meteorological conditions (VMC) and instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) today, as well as in IMC with a Graphical Weather Information System (GWIS). These preliminary data indicate that both VMC and GWIS-augmented IMC conditions result in better confidence, information sufficiency and perceived performance than the current IMC condition. For all these measures, the VMC and GWISaugmented conditions seemed to provide similar pilot support. These preliminary results are interpreted for their implications on GWIS display design, training, and operational use guidelines. Final experimental results will compare these subjective data with objective data of situation awareness and decision quality.

Abbreviations / Glossary Term Definition ACWS Attitude Control Wheel Steering-ACWS is a reduced mode of the autopilot which provideds constant heading and attitude once flightpath deviations are manually eliminated. AP Approach Point-The AP is the waypoint just prior to the touchdown point. ATC Air Traffic Control(ler)-A service provided from a control tower for aircraft operating on the movement area and in the vicinity of an airport. ATIS Automatic Terminal Information System-ATIS is a continuous broadcast of recorded non-control, routine, but necessary information about a terminal area. CAA Auditory Change Altitude intervening task. CADC Central Air Data Computer. CDU Control Display Unit-The CDU is the interface to the FMS. COMM Communication channel. CSA Auditory Change Speed intervening task. CRA Auditory Change Runway intervening task. Datalink Datalink is a technology which provides digital information flow between ground services and flightdecks. dBA This unit measures sound pressure level calculated such that frequency ranges are weighted in a manner similar to the human ear's attenuation.

By the year 2030 one in every five Americans will be 65 years of age or older. Although future older adults are likely to be healthier and more active than their peers of today, age-related changes are inevitable and are bound to affect functional abilities especially as they relate to driving. With regard to physical changes, the driving task predominantly involves the execution of motor responses that are clearly subject to age-related declines. Furthermore, with age, a number of changes occur in the human eye that make the visual system operate less efficiently. In addition, declines in the performance of the auditory and vestibular systems and in spatial abilities also compromise driving and mobility. The present paper provides a review of age-related declines in physical and perceptual functioning and discusses their impact on the driving performance and safe mobility of older adults.