Evaluative conditioning (EC) is one of the terms that is used to refer to associatively induced c... more Evaluative conditioning (EC) is one of the terms that is used to refer to associatively induced changes in liking. Many controversies have arisen in the literature on EC. Do associatively induced changes in liking actually exist? Does EC depend on awareness of the fact that stimuli are associated? Is EC resistant to extinction? Does attention help or hinder EC? As an introduction to this special issue, we will discuss the extent to which the papers that are published in this issue help to resolve some of the controversies that surround EC.
Comparing measures of attitudes 2 During the past decade, many new measures of attitudes have bee... more Comparing measures of attitudes 2 During the past decade, many new measures of attitudes have been proposed, several of which received the label “implicit measure”.
The role of contingency awareness in evaluative conditioning has been a contentious issue for qui... more The role of contingency awareness in evaluative conditioning has been a contentious issue for quite some time now. Several papers provide a review of the relevant evidence (De Houwer, Baeyens, & Hendrickx, 1997a; De Houwer, Thomas, & Baeyens, in press; Field, 2000; Lovibond & Shanks, in press; Shanks & St. John, 1994), but the conclusions that are reached differ markedly.
In this paper, I argue that implicit measures are best conceived of as outcomes of measurement pr... more In this paper, I argue that implicit measures are best conceived of as outcomes of measurement procedures that have certain functional properties. This definition calls for a conditional approach in which one specifies for each measure the functional properties that the term'implicit'is meant to refer to and in which the functional properties of each vieasure are examined empirically.
Do feelings have a mind of their own? 2 Do feelings have a mind of their own? In 1979, Robert B. ... more Do feelings have a mind of their own? 2 Do feelings have a mind of their own? In 1979, Robert B. Zajonc was awarded the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award by the American Psychological Association, for which occasion he was invited to give a lecture. On such events, honoured scientists often review the awarded research and present a personal view on future developments in the field of interest. Zajonc, however, chose to present a" richly provoking"(Rachman, 1981, p.
Abstract: The long history of persuasion research shows how to change explicit, self-reported eva... more Abstract: The long history of persuasion research shows how to change explicit, self-reported evaluations through direct appeals. At the same time, research on how to change implicit evaluations has focused almost entirely on techniques of retraining existing evaluations or manipulating contexts. In five studies, we examined whether direct appeals can change implicit evaluations in the same way as they do explicit evaluations.
Abstract The Pictorial Attitude Implicit Association Test (PA-IAT) has recently been proposed as ... more Abstract The Pictorial Attitude Implicit Association Test (PA-IAT) has recently been proposed as new measure of implicit motives. We report a study that provides the first evidence for the convergent validity of the PA-IAT by showing that the PA-IAT correlates significantly with a standard measure of implicit motives [ie the Picture Story Exercise (PSE)]. Discriminant validity of the PA-IAT was verified in the sense that the PA-IAT shared virtually no common variance with explicit motive measures.
The Pictorial Attitude Implicit Association Test (PA-IAT) has recently been developed as a new me... more The Pictorial Attitude Implicit Association Test (PA-IAT) has recently been developed as a new measure of need for power. This study aims to extend the scope of the PA-IAT to need for affiliation. In line with implicit motive theory, results show that the need for affiliation PA-IAT predicts non-declarative measures of motivation provided that need for affiliation is activated. We also obtained evidence for the discriminant validity of the measure.
Abstract Evaluative conditioning (EC) is a change in the valence of a stimulus that results from ... more Abstract Evaluative conditioning (EC) is a change in the valence of a stimulus that results from pairing the stimulus with an affective stimulus. Two high-powered studies (total N= 1161) investigated the nature of the relationship between EC and contingency awareness measured as contingency memory. Stronger EC occurred among people with more accurate and more confident memory of the pairings. Awareness was a necessary condition for EC, but EC was not necessary for awareness.
Abstract Previous research has demonstrated that contingency learning can take place in the absen... more Abstract Previous research has demonstrated that contingency learning can take place in the absence of the intention to learn. For instance, in the color–word contingency learning task, each distracting word is presented most often in a given target color (eg,“month” in red and “plate” in green), and less often in the other colors.
Abstract 1. Implicit measures can be defined as outcomes of measurement procedures that are cause... more Abstract 1. Implicit measures can be defined as outcomes of measurement procedures that are caused in an automatic manner by psychological attributes. To establish that a measurement outcome is an implicit measure, one should examine (a) whether the outcome is causally produced by the psychological attribute it was designed to measure,(b) the nature of the processes by which the attribute causes the outcome, and (c) whether these processes operate automatically.
The dot probe task [J Abnorm Psychol 95 (1986) 15] is an often-used paradigm to investigate selec... more The dot probe task [J Abnorm Psychol 95 (1986) 15] is an often-used paradigm to investigate selective attention to threat. A facilitated response to probes that appear at the same location of threat information in comparison with responses to probes at the opposite location of threat information is interpreted as vigilance for threat. We argue that the findings in the dot probe paradigm are ambiguous evidence for the vigilance to threat hypothesis. Results can also be interpreted as a difficulty to disengage from threat.
A core assumption in marketing research is that consumers tend to buy brands and products that th... more A core assumption in marketing research is that consumers tend to buy brands and products that they like. Marketeers are therefore eagerly looking for ways to change the liking of brands and products. Classical conditioning is generally considered to be one of the approaches to influence liking. In learning psychology, the term evaluative conditioning is used to refer to classical conditioning of liking. It can be defined as a change in the liking of a stimulus that results from pairing this stimulus with another stimulus.
El condicionamiento evaluativo se define como un efecto, es decir, un cambio en la valencia de un... more El condicionamiento evaluativo se define como un efecto, es decir, un cambio en la valencia de un estímulo que resulta de emparejar ese estímulo con otro. Esta definición tiene varias ventajas que se explicitan en este trabajo. Una de las ventajas es que aclara que el condicionamiento evaluativo puede deberse a múltiples procesos. Las condiciones bajo las cuales se observa el condicionamiento evaluativo dependen, concretamente, de los procesos que subyacen a cada manifestación particular del mismo.
Abstract 1. Research has shown that automatic evaluations can be highly robust and difficult to c... more Abstract 1. Research has shown that automatic evaluations can be highly robust and difficult to change, highly malleable and easy to change, and highly context dependent. We tested a representational account of these disparate findings, which specifies the conditions under which automatic evaluations reflect (a) initially acquired information,(b) subsequently acquired, counterattitudinal information, or (c) a mixture of both.
In studies on affective priming of pronunciation responses, two words are presented on each trial... more In studies on affective priming of pronunciation responses, two words are presented on each trial and participants are asked to read the second word out loud. Whereas some studies revealed shorter reaction times when the two words had the same valence than when they had a different valence, other studies either found no effect of affective congruence or revealed a reversed effect.
Abstract: Drawing on our Associative-Propositional Evaluation (APE) Model, we argue for the usefu... more Abstract: Drawing on our Associative-Propositional Evaluation (APE) Model, we argue for the usefulness of distinguishing between basic operating principles of learning processes (associative linking vs. propositional reasoning) and secondary features pertaining to the conditions of their operation (automatic vs. controlled). We review empirical evidence that supports the joint operation of associative and propositional processes in the formation of new associations.
Abstract In two experiments, we examined the extent to which automatic attentional biases, as ind... more Abstract In two experiments, we examined the extent to which automatic attentional biases, as indexed by performance in the emotional Stroop task (Experiment 1) and the dot-probe task (Experiment 2), are modulated by feature-specific attention allocation. In both experiments, participants were encouraged to attend to either affective stimulus information (affective groups) or non-affective semantic stimulus information (non-affective groups).
Abstract Previous research has shown that emotional stimuli interfere with ongoing activities. On... more Abstract Previous research has shown that emotional stimuli interfere with ongoing activities. One explanation is that these stimuli draw attention away from the primary task and thereby hamper the correct execution of the task. Another explanation is that emotional stimuli cause a temporary freezing of all ongoing activity. We used a go/no-go task to differentiate between these accounts. According to the attention account, emotional distractors should impair performance on both go and no-go trials.
Abstract Cognitively oriented psychologists often define behavioral effects in terms of mental co... more Abstract Cognitively oriented psychologists often define behavioral effects in terms of mental constructs (eg, classical conditioning as a change in behavior that is due to the formation of associations in memory) and thus effectively treat those effects as proxies for mental constructs. This practice can, however, hamper scientific progress.
Evaluative conditioning (EC) is one of the terms that is used to refer to associatively induced c... more Evaluative conditioning (EC) is one of the terms that is used to refer to associatively induced changes in liking. Many controversies have arisen in the literature on EC. Do associatively induced changes in liking actually exist? Does EC depend on awareness of the fact that stimuli are associated? Is EC resistant to extinction? Does attention help or hinder EC? As an introduction to this special issue, we will discuss the extent to which the papers that are published in this issue help to resolve some of the controversies that surround EC.
Comparing measures of attitudes 2 During the past decade, many new measures of attitudes have bee... more Comparing measures of attitudes 2 During the past decade, many new measures of attitudes have been proposed, several of which received the label “implicit measure”.
The role of contingency awareness in evaluative conditioning has been a contentious issue for qui... more The role of contingency awareness in evaluative conditioning has been a contentious issue for quite some time now. Several papers provide a review of the relevant evidence (De Houwer, Baeyens, & Hendrickx, 1997a; De Houwer, Thomas, & Baeyens, in press; Field, 2000; Lovibond & Shanks, in press; Shanks & St. John, 1994), but the conclusions that are reached differ markedly.
In this paper, I argue that implicit measures are best conceived of as outcomes of measurement pr... more In this paper, I argue that implicit measures are best conceived of as outcomes of measurement procedures that have certain functional properties. This definition calls for a conditional approach in which one specifies for each measure the functional properties that the term'implicit'is meant to refer to and in which the functional properties of each vieasure are examined empirically.
Do feelings have a mind of their own? 2 Do feelings have a mind of their own? In 1979, Robert B. ... more Do feelings have a mind of their own? 2 Do feelings have a mind of their own? In 1979, Robert B. Zajonc was awarded the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award by the American Psychological Association, for which occasion he was invited to give a lecture. On such events, honoured scientists often review the awarded research and present a personal view on future developments in the field of interest. Zajonc, however, chose to present a" richly provoking"(Rachman, 1981, p.
Abstract: The long history of persuasion research shows how to change explicit, self-reported eva... more Abstract: The long history of persuasion research shows how to change explicit, self-reported evaluations through direct appeals. At the same time, research on how to change implicit evaluations has focused almost entirely on techniques of retraining existing evaluations or manipulating contexts. In five studies, we examined whether direct appeals can change implicit evaluations in the same way as they do explicit evaluations.
Abstract The Pictorial Attitude Implicit Association Test (PA-IAT) has recently been proposed as ... more Abstract The Pictorial Attitude Implicit Association Test (PA-IAT) has recently been proposed as new measure of implicit motives. We report a study that provides the first evidence for the convergent validity of the PA-IAT by showing that the PA-IAT correlates significantly with a standard measure of implicit motives [ie the Picture Story Exercise (PSE)]. Discriminant validity of the PA-IAT was verified in the sense that the PA-IAT shared virtually no common variance with explicit motive measures.
The Pictorial Attitude Implicit Association Test (PA-IAT) has recently been developed as a new me... more The Pictorial Attitude Implicit Association Test (PA-IAT) has recently been developed as a new measure of need for power. This study aims to extend the scope of the PA-IAT to need for affiliation. In line with implicit motive theory, results show that the need for affiliation PA-IAT predicts non-declarative measures of motivation provided that need for affiliation is activated. We also obtained evidence for the discriminant validity of the measure.
Abstract Evaluative conditioning (EC) is a change in the valence of a stimulus that results from ... more Abstract Evaluative conditioning (EC) is a change in the valence of a stimulus that results from pairing the stimulus with an affective stimulus. Two high-powered studies (total N= 1161) investigated the nature of the relationship between EC and contingency awareness measured as contingency memory. Stronger EC occurred among people with more accurate and more confident memory of the pairings. Awareness was a necessary condition for EC, but EC was not necessary for awareness.
Abstract Previous research has demonstrated that contingency learning can take place in the absen... more Abstract Previous research has demonstrated that contingency learning can take place in the absence of the intention to learn. For instance, in the color–word contingency learning task, each distracting word is presented most often in a given target color (eg,“month” in red and “plate” in green), and less often in the other colors.
Abstract 1. Implicit measures can be defined as outcomes of measurement procedures that are cause... more Abstract 1. Implicit measures can be defined as outcomes of measurement procedures that are caused in an automatic manner by psychological attributes. To establish that a measurement outcome is an implicit measure, one should examine (a) whether the outcome is causally produced by the psychological attribute it was designed to measure,(b) the nature of the processes by which the attribute causes the outcome, and (c) whether these processes operate automatically.
The dot probe task [J Abnorm Psychol 95 (1986) 15] is an often-used paradigm to investigate selec... more The dot probe task [J Abnorm Psychol 95 (1986) 15] is an often-used paradigm to investigate selective attention to threat. A facilitated response to probes that appear at the same location of threat information in comparison with responses to probes at the opposite location of threat information is interpreted as vigilance for threat. We argue that the findings in the dot probe paradigm are ambiguous evidence for the vigilance to threat hypothesis. Results can also be interpreted as a difficulty to disengage from threat.
A core assumption in marketing research is that consumers tend to buy brands and products that th... more A core assumption in marketing research is that consumers tend to buy brands and products that they like. Marketeers are therefore eagerly looking for ways to change the liking of brands and products. Classical conditioning is generally considered to be one of the approaches to influence liking. In learning psychology, the term evaluative conditioning is used to refer to classical conditioning of liking. It can be defined as a change in the liking of a stimulus that results from pairing this stimulus with another stimulus.
El condicionamiento evaluativo se define como un efecto, es decir, un cambio en la valencia de un... more El condicionamiento evaluativo se define como un efecto, es decir, un cambio en la valencia de un estímulo que resulta de emparejar ese estímulo con otro. Esta definición tiene varias ventajas que se explicitan en este trabajo. Una de las ventajas es que aclara que el condicionamiento evaluativo puede deberse a múltiples procesos. Las condiciones bajo las cuales se observa el condicionamiento evaluativo dependen, concretamente, de los procesos que subyacen a cada manifestación particular del mismo.
Abstract 1. Research has shown that automatic evaluations can be highly robust and difficult to c... more Abstract 1. Research has shown that automatic evaluations can be highly robust and difficult to change, highly malleable and easy to change, and highly context dependent. We tested a representational account of these disparate findings, which specifies the conditions under which automatic evaluations reflect (a) initially acquired information,(b) subsequently acquired, counterattitudinal information, or (c) a mixture of both.
In studies on affective priming of pronunciation responses, two words are presented on each trial... more In studies on affective priming of pronunciation responses, two words are presented on each trial and participants are asked to read the second word out loud. Whereas some studies revealed shorter reaction times when the two words had the same valence than when they had a different valence, other studies either found no effect of affective congruence or revealed a reversed effect.
Abstract: Drawing on our Associative-Propositional Evaluation (APE) Model, we argue for the usefu... more Abstract: Drawing on our Associative-Propositional Evaluation (APE) Model, we argue for the usefulness of distinguishing between basic operating principles of learning processes (associative linking vs. propositional reasoning) and secondary features pertaining to the conditions of their operation (automatic vs. controlled). We review empirical evidence that supports the joint operation of associative and propositional processes in the formation of new associations.
Abstract In two experiments, we examined the extent to which automatic attentional biases, as ind... more Abstract In two experiments, we examined the extent to which automatic attentional biases, as indexed by performance in the emotional Stroop task (Experiment 1) and the dot-probe task (Experiment 2), are modulated by feature-specific attention allocation. In both experiments, participants were encouraged to attend to either affective stimulus information (affective groups) or non-affective semantic stimulus information (non-affective groups).
Abstract Previous research has shown that emotional stimuli interfere with ongoing activities. On... more Abstract Previous research has shown that emotional stimuli interfere with ongoing activities. One explanation is that these stimuli draw attention away from the primary task and thereby hamper the correct execution of the task. Another explanation is that emotional stimuli cause a temporary freezing of all ongoing activity. We used a go/no-go task to differentiate between these accounts. According to the attention account, emotional distractors should impair performance on both go and no-go trials.
Abstract Cognitively oriented psychologists often define behavioral effects in terms of mental co... more Abstract Cognitively oriented psychologists often define behavioral effects in terms of mental constructs (eg, classical conditioning as a change in behavior that is due to the formation of associations in memory) and thus effectively treat those effects as proxies for mental constructs. This practice can, however, hamper scientific progress.
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