International Studies

Due to the growing demand for hydrocarbons, explorations at sea have increased with particular challenges such as exploitation in ultra-deep waters and frozen seas, which has led to the development of new technologies. Offshore activities are considered high-risk, with accidents and a high fatality rate as well as severe damage to the environment. This article will analyze the importance of design for safety in offshore oil and gas platforms and the good practices from the MODU CODE. Then will concentrate on the implication of technical standards with safety cases. Also, it will examine the industry in the Colombian Caribbean coast, focusing on the recent concerns in the offshore sector, potential oil spills, and how to enforce the design for safety in the country. Finally, it will conclude with some suggestions and recommendations to improve this industry in Colombia and protect the environment.

The article described the advance and retreat rates of Manzanillo Island's coastline between 1937 and 2010, demonstrating a moderate setback of the coastline due to a slow erosive process of constant ocean interaction and anthropogenic factors. The technique employed aerial photos processed in a geographic information system to accurately determine changes in the coastline/El proposito de este estudio consistio en determinar y describir la tasa de avance\retroceso actual de la linea de costa de la Isla de Manzanillo, partiendo de datos obtenidos por sensores remotos, durante el periodo comprendido entre los anos 1937 y 2010, donde se evidencio un retroceso moderado de la linea de costa, con un lento erosivo y de accion constante. Para este analisis se debio establecer, comparar y evaluar las variaciones a traves de imagenes aereas. Se utilizaron programas digitales, que facilitaron el procesamiento de estas imagenes, las cuales admiten la comparacion de la linea de costa con un minimo grado de error. Se desarrollo con un eje tematico sobre procesos costeros y en concordancia con el estudio “Analisis multitemporal (1937-2010) de la linea de costa de la Isla de Manzanillo, por efecto de oleaje y procesos antropicos” (Bahia de Cartagena - Colombia). Palabras clave: Acrecion, Erosion, Aerofotografia, Linea de costa, Georreferenciacion.

The article discusses Cartagena de Indias military coastal defense and fortifications expansion during the 18th century to ward off British naval attacks. The ocean-atmosphere system is analyzed in detail to examine the strategies and tactics for coastal defense. The article applies geographical information system coupling techniques to undertake a geomorphological analysis of the evolution of the coastline by conducting a multi-temporal analysis from 1665 to 2010 using nautical charts. / El presente artículo analiza la expansión que tuvo la ciudad de Cartagena de Indias desde el siglo XVIII, en cuanto a infraestructura de defensa militar, para protegerla de los ataques de los ingleses, se realiza un análisis detallado de las condiciones océano-atmósfera, utilizando técnicas modernas de acoplamiento de información espacial para llevar a cabo el análisis morfológico que tuvo este importante puerto. Además se describen las principales edificaciones militares tales como la escollera de Bocagrande construida por Don Antonio de Arévalo en 1773, la cual produjo cambios sucesivos al litoral de la bahía de Cartagena. Este artículo realiza un análisis multitemporal de la evolución de la línea de costa con cartografía recopilada desde los años 1665 hasta la época actual donde se describen como la influencia de la corona española tuvo fuerte impacto a la hora de determinar la ubicación estratégica militar para defender los tesoros que allí se guardaban y como estos han interactuado con los cambios geomorfológicos en la línea de costa de esta importante ciudad colonial.

The article examines the sociocultural context in Cartagena de Indias in 1934, before the arrival of the Royal Navy mission, which was tasked with establishing a formal navy in Colombia. The mission was led by Captain Basil O. Bell-Salter, later appointed Admiral by the National government, Captain Ralph Douglas Binney, and approximately 250 veteran sailors from the Royal Navy as part of the crews of Colombian destroyers tasked with waging war against Peru. Corría el año de 1934, cuando el último de los marinos ingleses que harían parte de la Misión Naval Británica que tenía como objetivo crear y organizar la Armada Colombiana. El presente articulo, hace una revision del estado social de la ciudad de Cartagena de Indias a la llegada de la Mision Britanica. Esta misión estaba compuesta por el Capitán de Navío Basil O. Bell -Salter, a quien el gobierno Nacional nombraría como Almirante, el Capitán de Fragata Charles K. Adam, el Capitán de Navío Ralph Douglas Binney y unos 250 marinos veteranos quienes pasaron a hacer parte de las tripulaciones de los destructores colombianos MC “Caldas” y MC “Antioquia” recién adquiridos al gobierno Portugués para hacer frente al conflicto con el Perú, alcanzando algunos de estos hombres de mar ingleses a pertenecer a la Armada Real de la era “Victoriana”, y en su mayoría excombatientes de la primera guerra mundial participando en las batallas de Jutlandia, Falkland o en los Dardanelos.

La Estrategia Marítima  contiene una serie de factores que están implícitos en el desarrollo y elaboración de la estrategia nacional de un país los cuales son: Economía, Política, Sicosocial y finalmente el Militar, con el fin de alcanzar el dominio, protección y control de los intereses marítimos, lo que conlleva al empleo y uso del Poder Naval y a la búsqueda de objetivos marítimos y es allí donde nace la Estrategia Marítima, siendo esta del más alto nivel del gobierno, donde los factores que comprenden esta estrategia se
convierten en políticas de Estado.

"El mayor museo de Colombia esta en las profundidades del Mar Caribe". El articulo, ademas de mostrar la motivación personal del autor y sus vínculos durante los últimos años con el Galeón San Jose, presenta una breve explicación del proceso y entrega tres lineas de investigación científicas para un proyecto de vital importancia para el Estado Colombiano y el mundo entero sobre patrimonio sumergido, ciencia y tecnología.

Command and control of the sea during the Korean War would only
be possible through a multinational force led by the United Nations.
Colombia was the only Latin American country to send naval and
ground forces responding to the U.N. call supporting the Republic of
South Korea's sister nation, expanding naval power and supremacy in the
war at sea. This article will outline the Colombian Navy's support in the
Korean Sea War, assessing the Navy's state before joining the
Multinational Force of the United Nations, analyzing their assistance and
contributions to naval operations, and finally, assimilation and outcomes
for the institution. The participation was an event of great magnitude
dividing Colombian naval history, making it part of its heritage. The
Colombian Navy's contribution to the United Nations Force is assessed
from the challenges to send naval units given the Navy's size and its
integration to a Multinational Force, operating in a limited war.
Assimilations and results are discussed and the benefits for the
Colombian Navy in naval doctrine and military cooperation with the
United States and South Korea

Este artículo analiza los riesgos de seguridad física de las plataformas y unidades móviles de exploración y explotación de hidrocarburos costa afuera (offshore) en el mar Caribe colombiano. Para ello, se hace una revisión conceptual, se estudia la literatura relevante y se analizan los riesgos resultantes. Una vez establecidos los criterios de clasificación y medición, se examina el impacto y la probabilidad de ocurrencia de eventos violentos que pudieran afectar estas plataformas y unidades. Como resultado, se concluye que la mayoría de riesgos son de tipo asimétrico, con un nivel de pro-babilidad baja y media de ocurrencia, entre los cuales se destacan el terrorismo y las acciones hostiles entre Estados por su potencial impacto. Se propone ejercer mejor control del territorio marítimo en pro de la seguridad marítima y energética

Previous studies suggest that tropical storms and hurricanes are among the leading causes of shipwrecks in the Caribbean Sea since 1492. This paper will explore the relationship between shipwrecks and hurricanes in the Western Caribbean, particularly Roncador Cay, a place with complex environmental conditions that have made this area a trap for ships, but has up until now, been without rigorous shipwreck analysis. This study covers the period 1492 to 1920 with search results of 23 shipwrecks and 37 tropical cyclones compiled in databases, reviewing seven wrecks already documented and revealing new information on 16, previously not recorded. The sources provide detailed shipwrecks, demonstrating that most accidents occurred by unspecific causes and no direct relationship with hurricanes but were influenced by environmental conditions, such as geomorphology, cold fronts, or currents. There is also a reflection on the sociocultural changes and the influence of power in the region. The study includes a suggested tool for future research, protecting the wreck site and emphasizing the importance of the underwater cultural heritage as an indicator of the active maritime past.

This article summarizes the progress and current state of underwater archaeology in Colombia over the past three decades. It also presents the limitations for the scientific community imposed by the Submerged Cultural Heritage Law 1675 of 2013, implemented for the commercial salvage project of the Spanish galleon San José, sunk in 1708. This new legislation opposes basic archaeological principles as well as the 2001 UNESCO Convention. Finally, this paper proposes some considerations about the risks and uncertainty for the future development of underwater archaeology in Colombia.

Roncador Cay is located in the western Caribbean within the Colombian maritime territory, a place with complex environmental conditions that have been a ship trap for centuries. On February 2, 1894, the United States Ship Kearsarge, a renowned warship for outstanding participation in the American Civil War, wrecked in the Cay. The ship was abandoned with the armament, and its memory lost for years. For the United States and Colombia, the remains of the USS Kearsarge are considered underwater cultural heritage with extensive historical data. However, the wreck site has not been studied to identify or localize the remains. This research aims to estimate the location of the wreck site in geographical information systems from an interdisciplinary study combining qualitative and quantitative data. Also, for a better understanding of the shipwreck and its relationship with the maritime cultural landscape, the environmental conditions and the sociocultural factors are characterized. As with most historical shipwrecks studies, the research design is subject to limitations arising from the geographical isolation of the site, ambiguous information, and the confidentiality of Colombian law; however, the study addressed different methods and assumptions to review the location.

Although this dissertation does not accurately localize the remains, it estimated the location by generating geographic points of an area of uncertainty within one square nautical mile. Finally, to determine the possible future of the remains an analysis of the legal framework of the flag state and coastal state was conducted. The data collected and findings are expected to be used in an international cooperation project looking for capacity building as a critical element for sustained development among maritime researcher. This study is an example of interdisciplinary research that demonstrates the relevance of fieldwork to identify the remains, protect the wreck site, and highlight the shared underwater cultural heritage.

El presente artículo analiza la expansión que tuvo la ciudad de Cartagena de Indias desde el siglo XVIII, en cuanto a infraestructura de defensa militar, para protegerla de los ataques de los ingleses, se realiza un análisis detallado de las condiciones océano-atmósfera, utilizando técnicas modernas de acoplamiento de información espacial para llevar a cabo el análisis morfológico que tuvo este importante puerto. Además se describen las principales edificaciones militares tales como la escollera de Bocagrande construida por Don Antonio de Arévalo en 1773, la cual produjo cambios sucesivos al litoral de la bahía de Cartagena. Este artículo realiza un análisis multitemporal de la evolución de la línea de costa con cartografía recopilada desde los años 1665 hasta la época actual donde se describen como la influencia de la corona española tuvo fuerte impacto a la hora de determinar la ubicación estratégica militar para defender los tesoros que allí se guardaban y como estos han interact...

Este artículo analiza los riesgos de seguridad física de las plataformas y unidades móviles de exploración y explotación de hidrocarburos costa afuera (offshore) en el mar Caribe colombiano. Para ello, se hace una revisión conceptual, se estudia la literatura relevante y se analizan los riesgos resultantes. Una vez establecidos los criterios de clasificación y medición, se examina el impacto y la probabilidad de ocurrencia de eventos violentos que pudieran afectar estas plataformas y unidades. Como resultado, se concluye que la mayoría de riesgos son de tipo asimétrico, con un nivel de probabilidad baja y media de ocurrencia, entre los cuales se destacan el terrorismo y las acciones hostiles entre Estados por su potencial impacto. Se propone ejercer mejor control del territorio marítimo en pro de la seguridad marítima y energética.

Colombia has hundreds of historical shipwrecks, but systematic research on this topic is scarce, which makes locating wreck sites problematic. Colombia is home to the Caribbean archipelago of San Andres, Old Providence, and Santa Catalina. Its complex environmental conditions make it a “ship trap”. On 2 February 1894, the USS Kearsarge ran aground on Roncador Cay, one of the Archipelago’s islets, and the location of the wreck site remains uncertain. Due to its role in the American Civil War, the Kearsarge is important naval heritage. Based on historical and cartographic records, orthophotographs, Landsat images, and light-detection-and-ranging (LiDAR) data, this study aimed to estimate the location of the wreck site in a Geographic Information System (GIS). Court-martial records, particularly nautical data and astronomical coordinates, were reviewed, including a study from 1894 indicating the wreck’s location on a map without coordinates. Nautical charts were also analyzed to find t...

In the early nineteenth century, the Western Caribbean, particularly the Archipelago of San Andres, Old Providence, and Santa Catalina, became the focal point of ambitious hydrographic surveys. Despite the region's rich maritime heritage, challenges posed by complex geomorphology, frequent hurricanes, and cold fronts led to historical charting inadequacies, turning the Archipelago into a perilous ship trap. This study delves into the Spanish Armada (1804-05) and the Royal Navy (1833-36) hydrographic surveys to interpret the Maritime Cultural Landscape (MCL) of the archipelago. The importance of the archipelago as a link between South America, the Isthmus of Panama, Havana (Cuba), and Europe highlights the significance of these surveys. A comparative analysis of the Spanish and British methods offers insights into their strategies amid the perilous survey environment. While integration of Spanish nautical information into the British survey is evident, it culminated in the wreck of HMS Jackdaw, illustrating mapping expedition complexities. This paper also evaluates the accuracy of British cartography using Geographic Information System (GIS) methodologies. By overlaying the 1835 Old Providence Island chart onto contemporary 2021 cartography, we showcase the standards and precision of British surveys through an analysis of coastline and hydrographic soundings. Personal memoirs, official records, and descriptive accounts weave the narrative of the rich MCL, emphasizing its historical importance, the region's maritime identity, and the intertwining of environmental factors and cultural heritage.

In the early nineteenth century, the Western Caribbean, particularly the Archipelago of San Andres, Old Providence, and Santa Catalina, became the focal point of ambitious hydrographic surveys. Despite the region's rich maritime heritage, challenges posed by complex geomorphology, frequent hurricanes, and cold fronts led to historical charting inadequacies, turning the Archipelago into a perilous ship trap. This study delves into the Spanish Armada (1804-05) and the Royal Navy (1833-36) hydrographic surveys to interpret the Maritime Cultural Landscape (MCL) of the archipelago. The importance of the archipelago as a link between South America, the Isthmus of Panama, Havana (Cuba), and Europe highlights the significance of these surveys. A comparative analysis of the Spanish and British methods offers insights into their strategies amid the perilous survey environment. While integration of Spanish nautical information into the British survey is evident, it culminated in the wreck of HMS Jackdaw, illustrating mapping expedition complexities. This paper also evaluates the accuracy of British cartography using Geographic Information System (GIS) methodologies. By overlaying the 1835 Old Providence Island chart onto contemporary 2021 cartography, we showcase the standards and precision of British surveys through an analysis of coastline and hydrographic soundings. Personal memoirs, official records, and descriptive accounts weave the narrative of the rich MCL, emphasizing its historical importance, the region's maritime identity, and the intertwining of environmental factors and cultural heritage.