Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review, 2019
Yuanchong Wang. Remaking the Chinese Empire: Manchu-Korean Relations, 1616–1911. Ithaca, NY: Corn... more Yuanchong Wang. Remaking the Chinese Empire: Manchu-Korean Relations, 1616–1911. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2018. 300 pp. Eugene Y. Park. A Genealogy of Dissent: The Progeny of Fallen Royals in Chosŏn Korea. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018. 288 pp. Recent years have seen enormous growth in English-language scholarship on the Chosŏn period and greater attention to early modern Korea from scholars of Edo Japan and late imperial China. Chosŏn-dynasty studies in English have expanded from being a narrow and somewhat claustrophobic field with only a few big names to including many new voices. Some scholars have focused on themes that have received little or no attention in English, or even Korean. Others have attempted new and original approaches to well-discussed topics. The two works reviewed here—Remaking the Chinese Empire: Manchu-Korean Relations, 1616–1911 by Yuanchong Wang and A Genealogy of Dissent: The Progeny of Fallen Royals in Chosŏ...
University of Toronto Libraries - UOTL, Jun 1, 2000
Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) and the many Jesuit priests who followed Matteo Ricci's lea... more Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) and the many Jesuit priests who followed Matteo Ricci's lead pursued a policy of cooperation with the scholar-offi-cials, the educated (Confucians, of China. Ricci did not cooperate merely on a political level; on the contrary, he attempted to harmonize the ...
Shim Tae-shik, Woo Eungsoon, and many others who helped me during my period as Humanities Korea r... more Shim Tae-shik, Woo Eungsoon, and many others who helped me during my period as Humanities Korea research professor. I continued to bene t from my connection to RIKS a er I took up my position at King's University College, when they frequently o ered me a place to study during summer research trips to Seoul. I nished the writing of my book during my stay at the Kyujanggak Institute, in-. I thank especially Sem Vermeersch and Kum Heekyung for their help and assistance. Other scholars who have provided me with vital feedback during conferences and other occasions include
Thanks to the support of the Academy of Korean Studies, in recent years the quantity of English t... more Thanks to the support of the Academy of Korean Studies, in recent years the quantity of English translations of primary texts in Korean studies has increased enormously. Especially prolific in this respect has been a team of translators assembled by the Center for Buddhist Studies at UCLA (full disclosure: I am also one of the translators, although I have no connection to the translator of the reviewed work). It is especially welcome that among these texts is the T’aengniji. A literal translation of the title might be “Treatise on Selecting a Village,” but the translator’s title, A Place to Live, is short, striking, and memorable. The author, Yi Chung-hwan (1690–1756), was a marginalized member of an aristocratic yangban family who was pushed into exile on account of factional politics. A Place to Live, which he likely completed during the early 1750s, is a geographic account of eighteenth-century Chosŏn written with the purpose of helping fellow yangban aristocrats select a good place to live. After an introductory survey of the Chosŏn’s system of social status, Yi Review Essay
During the reign of Sukchong (1674-1720), two narratives employing the figure of the Ming loyalis... more During the reign of Sukchong (1674-1720), two narratives employing the figure of the Ming loyalist migrant as a symbol of hostility to the Chos?n court were recorded in the transcripts of treason investigations. The first narrative, in 1696-7, was a rumor of an anti-dynastic movement led by a monk who claimed to be a Ming loyalist fugitive of distinguished lineage. The second narrative originated in an anti-Qing letter, purportedly written by Ming remnants, which was posted to a city gate. The authors of the letter were not found but a false accusation was made which linked Ming loyalism with the unstable borderland world of the Yalu region. Although the Ming loyalist remnants described in these two narratives did not exist, the fact that such Ming loyalist narratives were produced by seditious people of low or marginal status suggests that Ming loyalism was not exclusively an ideology of the court and yanghan elites but was also a tool of resistance for the marginalized.
This article discusses developments among Jurchen tribes on Choso ˘n Korea's northeast frontier d... more This article discusses developments among Jurchen tribes on Choso ˘n Korea's northeast frontier during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. By the sixteenth century, it is often argued, Choso ˘n court officialdom had thoroughly internalized Sinocentric ideology, and this caused them to despise Jurchens as barbarian outsiders. By exploring court debates and poetry related to Jurchen uprisings in northern Hamgyo ˘ng, however, this essay argues that Sinocentric ideology was only one factor in sixteenth-century Choso ˘n views of the Jurchens. The long-established relationship of certain Jurchen groups with the Choso ˘n court and the important role that Jurchens played in Choso ˘n's defense also influenced Choso ˘n attitudes. Even Sinocentric ideology, whereby Jurchens were considered inferior barbarian outsiders, could be used rhetorically to call Choso ˘n officials to treat their Jurchen inferiors with paternalistic concern.
In this revisionist history of early modern China, Evelyn Rawski challenges the notion of Chinese... more In this revisionist history of early modern China, Evelyn Rawski challenges the notion of Chinese history as a linear narrative of dynasties dominated by the Central Plains and Han Chinese culture from a unique, peripheral perspective. Rawski argues that China has been shaped by its relations with Japan, Korea, and the Jurchen/ Manchu and Mongol States, and must therefore be viewed both within the context of a regional framework, and as part of a global maritime network of trade. Drawing on a rich variety of Japanese, Korean, Manchu, and Chinese archival sources, Rawski analyses the conflicts and regime changes that accompanied the region's integration into the world economy during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Early Modern China and Northeast Asia places Sino-Korean and Sino-Japanese relations within the context of Northeast Asian geopolitics, surveying the complex connections which continue to this day.
Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review, 2015
In this book, Pae Usŏng, a historian at the University of Seoul, takes a fresh look at the relati... more In this book, Pae Usŏng, a historian at the University of Seoul, takes a fresh look at the relationship of Chosŏn Korea (1392-1910) with China and that of Chosŏn's yangban (scholarofficials) with Sinitic civilization as a whole. None of Chosŏn's relationships were more important, or more complicated, than that with China. On the one hand, Chosŏn was in nearly all respects independent from both Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1912) China. On the other hand, under both the Ming and the Qing, the Chosŏn court sent envoys regularly to Beijing, thereby acknowledging its subservience to China. After the Manchu Qing supplanted the Ming in the mid-eighteenth century, most Chosŏn officials, privately at least, rejected the Qing as an empire controlled by barbarians. Following the Qing conquest, most Chosŏn scholar-officials also asserted that China's cultural and political traditions had been irreparably lost within China proper, and that Chosŏn was the only remaining heir of the Sinitic tradition. Even so, no Chosŏn person of significance before the late nineteenth century actually called for the removal of Chosŏn from the Sinitic world, no matter how much the legitimacy of the Qing was doubted. To some scholars in twentieth-and twenty-first-century Korea, this "Sinocentrism" has seemed to represent a Korea that was embarrassingly dependent on China and lacking in a sense of self-pride. Other scholars, such as Chŏng Okcha (1998), have defended this Sinocentrism by arguing that, especially after the fall of the Ming, Chosŏn scholar-officials identified Chosŏn with Chunghwa (as I will refer to the partly deterritorialized Chinese civilization imagined by Chosŏn scholar-officials), and so admiration of Chunghwa was admiration not of China but of Bohnet 200 Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review E-Journal No. 12 (September 2014) • (http://cross-currents.berkeley.edu/e-journal/issue-12) Chosŏn's own political and cultural traditions. Both critics and supporters of Chosŏn's Chunghwa consciousness, in other words, have tended to frame the subject according to the ideals of modern nationalism. Pae, however, argues that it is anachronistic to evaluate Chosŏn people and institutions according to whether they asserted Korean chaju (autonomy) and chajon (self-admiration), on the one hand, or dependence on or admiration for China, on the other. As he ably demonstrates, Chosŏn people generally did not understand matters in these terms, or even see membership in the Sinitic cultural and political sphere to be in contradiction to Chosŏn difference.
Numerous Ming Chinese took refuge in Chosŏn Korea during the early seventeenth century. Despite ... more Numerous Ming Chinese took refuge in Chosŏn Korea during the early seventeenth century. Despite the supposed sinocentrism of Chosŏ’s elites, refugees from China were treated as belonging to the category of submitting-foreigner (hyanghwain), a protected but distinctly humble social status that had been used primarily as a tool for settling Japanese and Jurchen from Chosŏn’s frontiers. Beginning in the mid-eighteenth century, however, the Chosŏn court considered it incongruous to include Ming Chinese descendants in that category. Chinese lineages were thus distinguished from other submitting-foreigners and reclassified according to the considerably more prestigious category of imperial subjects. This paper explores this change, seeing it as part of a trend in the Qing Empire and indeed in Eurasia as a whole in which identity and subjecthood became increasingly bureaucratized, and loyalties treated as absolute.
"In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the northern corner of Choson was dominated by Ju... more "In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the northern corner of Choson was dominated by Jurchen who were simultaneously subjects of the Choson monarchy and tied, through trade and kinship, to Jurchen groups outside of Choson authority. During the early seventeenth century, Manchu rulers claimed the loyalty of these Jurchen on the basis of prior genealogical links to the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115-1234), and sought to remove them from territory under Choson control. In this they were successful, and the borders of northern Korea were thus left substantially empty of population until the 1712 delimitation of the border between Choson and the Manchu Qing empire. So successful was the Manchu rulers claiming of the loyalty of Choson’s Jurchen that late seventeenth and early eighteenth century officials such as Nam Kuman and Yi Imy?ng substantially accepted Manchu claims. At the time of the Jurchen’s removal, however, Choson officials such as Yi Sugwang had defended the prior authority of the Choson state over the Jurchen as the Jurchen’s trade and kin connections across the Tumen were enormously valuable for the information they provided to the Choson court. Choson’s Jurchen themselves resisted their removal. Thus the forced removal of Choson’s Jurchen communities by the Manchu constituted the creation of a strict division between Choson and Jurchen which had not existed before, and allowed for clear demarcations of territory during the next century."
This thesis explores the changing approach of the Chosŏn state to subjects with foreign lineages ... more This thesis explores the changing approach of the Chosŏn state to subjects with foreign lineages in the period between the Imjin War (1592-98) and the early nineteenth century. Chosŏn Korea underwent considerable upheaval during the Imjin War and the wars of the Ming-Qing transition. Many Jurchen subjects of the Chosŏn court were forced from their homes in the Tumen Valley into the banner armies of the rising Qing state, with only a remnant persisting in Chosŏn. Additionally, large numbers of Ming Chinese entered Chosŏn either with the Ming army or as refugees from war in Liaodong. Initially, the Chosŏn state responded to its Jurchen and Ming Chinese subjects primarily through pragmatic concern about the loyalty of these subjects to the Chosŏn and the burden they imposed on the agricultural economy. As a result, the Chosŏn court welcomed and even defended the Jurchen as established Chosŏn subjects but was cautious of the more alien Ming deserters and refugees. Ming migrant status did not improve during the remainder of the seventeenth century. Ming Chinese lineages were considered, along with Jurchen and Japanese, within the same invidious submitting foreigner tax category. During the same period fraudulent Ming migrants became a focus for sedition among non-elites. The eighteenth century rise of Ming Loyalist ritualism transformed the response of the Chosŏn court to such foreign lineages as iii Ming migrant lineages were encouraged to participate in court-sponsored Ming loyalist rituals. Along with this ritual participation Ming migrant status was transformed from that of submitting foreigners to that of imperial subjects, while Jurchen and Japanese lineages disappeared. At the same time, hagiographic biographies were written of the original Ming Chinese refugees which praised them for coming to Chosŏn because of Neo-Confucian loyalty to the Ming. The Chosŏn state responded to foreign lineages according to changing circumstances. Neo-Confucian ritualism only played a role in response to Ming lineages in the eighteenth century when earlier concerns about disloyalty and social disruption had largely passed. the Glorious Revolution in England and of the French Revolution, Peter Sahlin has argued that a concept of absolute citizenship-defined as absence of the disabilities suffered by non-citizens (aubain), and embracing French subjects regardless of class, had already come into being in the late sixteenth century. 17 Tamar Herzog discusses a very different context in early modern Peninsular Spain and New Spain, in which, before the eighteenth century, citizenship did not coincide with loyalty to the monarch, but was generally determined first and foremost by a rather informal process of acceptance into the local community, and at times by the intervention of one of the various separate courts of Catalunya, Navarre, or Castile. 18 Another possible source of comparison with Chosŏn is Qing China. The Qing, like Spain, brought a range of peoples into its empire, all of whom owed their full loyalties to the Qing emperor, but who were not all governed in the same way. Especially among Han Chinese, association with a lineage determined a person's relationship to the state, such that being outside of a lineage placed one without protection against either local government or the state itself. 19 David Faure, for instance,
Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review, 2019
Yuanchong Wang. Remaking the Chinese Empire: Manchu-Korean Relations, 1616–1911. Ithaca, NY: Corn... more Yuanchong Wang. Remaking the Chinese Empire: Manchu-Korean Relations, 1616–1911. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2018. 300 pp. Eugene Y. Park. A Genealogy of Dissent: The Progeny of Fallen Royals in Chosŏn Korea. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018. 288 pp. Recent years have seen enormous growth in English-language scholarship on the Chosŏn period and greater attention to early modern Korea from scholars of Edo Japan and late imperial China. Chosŏn-dynasty studies in English have expanded from being a narrow and somewhat claustrophobic field with only a few big names to including many new voices. Some scholars have focused on themes that have received little or no attention in English, or even Korean. Others have attempted new and original approaches to well-discussed topics. The two works reviewed here—Remaking the Chinese Empire: Manchu-Korean Relations, 1616–1911 by Yuanchong Wang and A Genealogy of Dissent: The Progeny of Fallen Royals in Chosŏ...
University of Toronto Libraries - UOTL, Jun 1, 2000
Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) and the many Jesuit priests who followed Matteo Ricci's lea... more Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) and the many Jesuit priests who followed Matteo Ricci's lead pursued a policy of cooperation with the scholar-offi-cials, the educated (Confucians, of China. Ricci did not cooperate merely on a political level; on the contrary, he attempted to harmonize the ...
Shim Tae-shik, Woo Eungsoon, and many others who helped me during my period as Humanities Korea r... more Shim Tae-shik, Woo Eungsoon, and many others who helped me during my period as Humanities Korea research professor. I continued to bene t from my connection to RIKS a er I took up my position at King's University College, when they frequently o ered me a place to study during summer research trips to Seoul. I nished the writing of my book during my stay at the Kyujanggak Institute, in-. I thank especially Sem Vermeersch and Kum Heekyung for their help and assistance. Other scholars who have provided me with vital feedback during conferences and other occasions include
Thanks to the support of the Academy of Korean Studies, in recent years the quantity of English t... more Thanks to the support of the Academy of Korean Studies, in recent years the quantity of English translations of primary texts in Korean studies has increased enormously. Especially prolific in this respect has been a team of translators assembled by the Center for Buddhist Studies at UCLA (full disclosure: I am also one of the translators, although I have no connection to the translator of the reviewed work). It is especially welcome that among these texts is the T’aengniji. A literal translation of the title might be “Treatise on Selecting a Village,” but the translator’s title, A Place to Live, is short, striking, and memorable. The author, Yi Chung-hwan (1690–1756), was a marginalized member of an aristocratic yangban family who was pushed into exile on account of factional politics. A Place to Live, which he likely completed during the early 1750s, is a geographic account of eighteenth-century Chosŏn written with the purpose of helping fellow yangban aristocrats select a good place to live. After an introductory survey of the Chosŏn’s system of social status, Yi Review Essay
During the reign of Sukchong (1674-1720), two narratives employing the figure of the Ming loyalis... more During the reign of Sukchong (1674-1720), two narratives employing the figure of the Ming loyalist migrant as a symbol of hostility to the Chos?n court were recorded in the transcripts of treason investigations. The first narrative, in 1696-7, was a rumor of an anti-dynastic movement led by a monk who claimed to be a Ming loyalist fugitive of distinguished lineage. The second narrative originated in an anti-Qing letter, purportedly written by Ming remnants, which was posted to a city gate. The authors of the letter were not found but a false accusation was made which linked Ming loyalism with the unstable borderland world of the Yalu region. Although the Ming loyalist remnants described in these two narratives did not exist, the fact that such Ming loyalist narratives were produced by seditious people of low or marginal status suggests that Ming loyalism was not exclusively an ideology of the court and yanghan elites but was also a tool of resistance for the marginalized.
This article discusses developments among Jurchen tribes on Choso ˘n Korea's northeast frontier d... more This article discusses developments among Jurchen tribes on Choso ˘n Korea's northeast frontier during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. By the sixteenth century, it is often argued, Choso ˘n court officialdom had thoroughly internalized Sinocentric ideology, and this caused them to despise Jurchens as barbarian outsiders. By exploring court debates and poetry related to Jurchen uprisings in northern Hamgyo ˘ng, however, this essay argues that Sinocentric ideology was only one factor in sixteenth-century Choso ˘n views of the Jurchens. The long-established relationship of certain Jurchen groups with the Choso ˘n court and the important role that Jurchens played in Choso ˘n's defense also influenced Choso ˘n attitudes. Even Sinocentric ideology, whereby Jurchens were considered inferior barbarian outsiders, could be used rhetorically to call Choso ˘n officials to treat their Jurchen inferiors with paternalistic concern.
In this revisionist history of early modern China, Evelyn Rawski challenges the notion of Chinese... more In this revisionist history of early modern China, Evelyn Rawski challenges the notion of Chinese history as a linear narrative of dynasties dominated by the Central Plains and Han Chinese culture from a unique, peripheral perspective. Rawski argues that China has been shaped by its relations with Japan, Korea, and the Jurchen/ Manchu and Mongol States, and must therefore be viewed both within the context of a regional framework, and as part of a global maritime network of trade. Drawing on a rich variety of Japanese, Korean, Manchu, and Chinese archival sources, Rawski analyses the conflicts and regime changes that accompanied the region's integration into the world economy during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Early Modern China and Northeast Asia places Sino-Korean and Sino-Japanese relations within the context of Northeast Asian geopolitics, surveying the complex connections which continue to this day.
Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review, 2015
In this book, Pae Usŏng, a historian at the University of Seoul, takes a fresh look at the relati... more In this book, Pae Usŏng, a historian at the University of Seoul, takes a fresh look at the relationship of Chosŏn Korea (1392-1910) with China and that of Chosŏn's yangban (scholarofficials) with Sinitic civilization as a whole. None of Chosŏn's relationships were more important, or more complicated, than that with China. On the one hand, Chosŏn was in nearly all respects independent from both Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1912) China. On the other hand, under both the Ming and the Qing, the Chosŏn court sent envoys regularly to Beijing, thereby acknowledging its subservience to China. After the Manchu Qing supplanted the Ming in the mid-eighteenth century, most Chosŏn officials, privately at least, rejected the Qing as an empire controlled by barbarians. Following the Qing conquest, most Chosŏn scholar-officials also asserted that China's cultural and political traditions had been irreparably lost within China proper, and that Chosŏn was the only remaining heir of the Sinitic tradition. Even so, no Chosŏn person of significance before the late nineteenth century actually called for the removal of Chosŏn from the Sinitic world, no matter how much the legitimacy of the Qing was doubted. To some scholars in twentieth-and twenty-first-century Korea, this "Sinocentrism" has seemed to represent a Korea that was embarrassingly dependent on China and lacking in a sense of self-pride. Other scholars, such as Chŏng Okcha (1998), have defended this Sinocentrism by arguing that, especially after the fall of the Ming, Chosŏn scholar-officials identified Chosŏn with Chunghwa (as I will refer to the partly deterritorialized Chinese civilization imagined by Chosŏn scholar-officials), and so admiration of Chunghwa was admiration not of China but of Bohnet 200 Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review E-Journal No. 12 (September 2014) • (http://cross-currents.berkeley.edu/e-journal/issue-12) Chosŏn's own political and cultural traditions. Both critics and supporters of Chosŏn's Chunghwa consciousness, in other words, have tended to frame the subject according to the ideals of modern nationalism. Pae, however, argues that it is anachronistic to evaluate Chosŏn people and institutions according to whether they asserted Korean chaju (autonomy) and chajon (self-admiration), on the one hand, or dependence on or admiration for China, on the other. As he ably demonstrates, Chosŏn people generally did not understand matters in these terms, or even see membership in the Sinitic cultural and political sphere to be in contradiction to Chosŏn difference.
Numerous Ming Chinese took refuge in Chosŏn Korea during the early seventeenth century. Despite ... more Numerous Ming Chinese took refuge in Chosŏn Korea during the early seventeenth century. Despite the supposed sinocentrism of Chosŏ’s elites, refugees from China were treated as belonging to the category of submitting-foreigner (hyanghwain), a protected but distinctly humble social status that had been used primarily as a tool for settling Japanese and Jurchen from Chosŏn’s frontiers. Beginning in the mid-eighteenth century, however, the Chosŏn court considered it incongruous to include Ming Chinese descendants in that category. Chinese lineages were thus distinguished from other submitting-foreigners and reclassified according to the considerably more prestigious category of imperial subjects. This paper explores this change, seeing it as part of a trend in the Qing Empire and indeed in Eurasia as a whole in which identity and subjecthood became increasingly bureaucratized, and loyalties treated as absolute.
"In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the northern corner of Choson was dominated by Ju... more "In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the northern corner of Choson was dominated by Jurchen who were simultaneously subjects of the Choson monarchy and tied, through trade and kinship, to Jurchen groups outside of Choson authority. During the early seventeenth century, Manchu rulers claimed the loyalty of these Jurchen on the basis of prior genealogical links to the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115-1234), and sought to remove them from territory under Choson control. In this they were successful, and the borders of northern Korea were thus left substantially empty of population until the 1712 delimitation of the border between Choson and the Manchu Qing empire. So successful was the Manchu rulers claiming of the loyalty of Choson’s Jurchen that late seventeenth and early eighteenth century officials such as Nam Kuman and Yi Imy?ng substantially accepted Manchu claims. At the time of the Jurchen’s removal, however, Choson officials such as Yi Sugwang had defended the prior authority of the Choson state over the Jurchen as the Jurchen’s trade and kin connections across the Tumen were enormously valuable for the information they provided to the Choson court. Choson’s Jurchen themselves resisted their removal. Thus the forced removal of Choson’s Jurchen communities by the Manchu constituted the creation of a strict division between Choson and Jurchen which had not existed before, and allowed for clear demarcations of territory during the next century."
This thesis explores the changing approach of the Chosŏn state to subjects with foreign lineages ... more This thesis explores the changing approach of the Chosŏn state to subjects with foreign lineages in the period between the Imjin War (1592-98) and the early nineteenth century. Chosŏn Korea underwent considerable upheaval during the Imjin War and the wars of the Ming-Qing transition. Many Jurchen subjects of the Chosŏn court were forced from their homes in the Tumen Valley into the banner armies of the rising Qing state, with only a remnant persisting in Chosŏn. Additionally, large numbers of Ming Chinese entered Chosŏn either with the Ming army or as refugees from war in Liaodong. Initially, the Chosŏn state responded to its Jurchen and Ming Chinese subjects primarily through pragmatic concern about the loyalty of these subjects to the Chosŏn and the burden they imposed on the agricultural economy. As a result, the Chosŏn court welcomed and even defended the Jurchen as established Chosŏn subjects but was cautious of the more alien Ming deserters and refugees. Ming migrant status did not improve during the remainder of the seventeenth century. Ming Chinese lineages were considered, along with Jurchen and Japanese, within the same invidious submitting foreigner tax category. During the same period fraudulent Ming migrants became a focus for sedition among non-elites. The eighteenth century rise of Ming Loyalist ritualism transformed the response of the Chosŏn court to such foreign lineages as iii Ming migrant lineages were encouraged to participate in court-sponsored Ming loyalist rituals. Along with this ritual participation Ming migrant status was transformed from that of submitting foreigners to that of imperial subjects, while Jurchen and Japanese lineages disappeared. At the same time, hagiographic biographies were written of the original Ming Chinese refugees which praised them for coming to Chosŏn because of Neo-Confucian loyalty to the Ming. The Chosŏn state responded to foreign lineages according to changing circumstances. Neo-Confucian ritualism only played a role in response to Ming lineages in the eighteenth century when earlier concerns about disloyalty and social disruption had largely passed. the Glorious Revolution in England and of the French Revolution, Peter Sahlin has argued that a concept of absolute citizenship-defined as absence of the disabilities suffered by non-citizens (aubain), and embracing French subjects regardless of class, had already come into being in the late sixteenth century. 17 Tamar Herzog discusses a very different context in early modern Peninsular Spain and New Spain, in which, before the eighteenth century, citizenship did not coincide with loyalty to the monarch, but was generally determined first and foremost by a rather informal process of acceptance into the local community, and at times by the intervention of one of the various separate courts of Catalunya, Navarre, or Castile. 18 Another possible source of comparison with Chosŏn is Qing China. The Qing, like Spain, brought a range of peoples into its empire, all of whom owed their full loyalties to the Qing emperor, but who were not all governed in the same way. Especially among Han Chinese, association with a lineage determined a person's relationship to the state, such that being outside of a lineage placed one without protection against either local government or the state itself. 19 David Faure, for instance,
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