The ability to classify musical styles is an important and intriguing task from the perspective o... more The ability to classify musical styles is an important and intriguing task from the perspective of music cognition. This process, which listeners usually do effortlessly, involves integrating a number of perceptual processes. Recent summaries on categorisation divide these into two; 1) rule application 2) similarity computations (Smith & Patalano, Jonides, 1998; Hahn & Chater, 1998). This paper considers the latter using the statistical frequencies of events, which have been shown to be influential in learning and perception of language and sound patterns (e.g. Saffran, 1999). We also limit our line of inquiry into melodic similarity, since this allows to test and develop the frequency-based measures of melodic similarity that aim to tackle some of the categorisation and classification challenges music history holds for us.
Syncopations and polyrhythms are usually considered quite common in jazz. Therefore, it would see... more Syncopations and polyrhythms are usually considered quite common in jazz. Therefore, it would seem possible that in addition to basic metrical structures there are also other relatively strong sub-structures caused, for example, by extensive syncopations. In this study the effect of metre on the use of tones in bebop style jazz improvisations was examined. In particular, it was investigated whether there are other periodicities in addition to the basic metrical structures that effect the use of tones.
Statistical methods were used to investigate 18 bebop-styled jazz improvisations based on the so-... more Statistical methods were used to investigate 18 bebop-styled jazz improvisations based on the so- called Rhythm Changes chord progression. The data were compared with results obtained by C. L. Krumhansl and her colleagues in empirical tests investigating the perceived stability of the tones in the chromatic scale in various contexts. Comparisons were also made with data on the statistical distribution of the 12 chromatic tones in actual European art music. It was found that the chorus- level hierarchies (measured over a whole chorus) are remarkably similar to the rating profiles obtained in empirical tests and to the relative frequencies of the tones in European art music. The chord- level hierarchies (measured over single chords) suggest that in the chord progression the improvisers have certain cognitive reference points that are outlined more carefully than the rest of the chords (strong local hierarchy vs. weak local hierarchy). Furthermore, in both analyses, it was found that the metrical structure was used to emphasize or de- emphasize tones, depending on their tonal function.
This article is a study of melodic expectancy in North Sami yoiks, a style of music quite distinc... more This article is a study of melodic expectancy in North Sami yoiks, a style of music quite distinct from Western tonal music. Three different approaches were taken. The ®rst approach was a statistical style analysis of tones in a representative corpus of 18 yoiks. The analysis determined the relative frequencies of tone onsets and two-and three-tone transitions. It also identi®ed style characteristics, such as pentatonic orientation, the presence of two reference pitches, the frequency of large consonant intervals, and a relatively large set of possible melodic continuations. The second approach was a behavioral experiment in which listeners made judgments about melodic continuations. Three groups of listeners participated. One group was from the Sami culture, the second group consisted of Finnish music students who had learned some yoiks, and the third group consisted of Western musicians unfamiliar with yoiks. Expertise was associated with stronger veridical expectations (for the correct next tone) than schematic expectations (based on general style characteristics). Familiarity with the particular yoiks was found to compensate for lack of experience with the musical culture. The third approach simulated melodic expectancy with neural network models of the selforganizing map (SOM) type . Self-organizing maps (2nd ed.). Berlin: Springer). One model was trained on the excerpts of yoiks used in the behavioral experiment including the correct continuation tone, while another was trained with a set of Finnish folk songs and Lutheran hymns. The convergence of the three approaches showed that both listeners and the SOM model are in¯uenced by the statistical distributions of tones and tone sequences. The listeners and SOM models also provided evidence supporting a core C.L. Krumhansl et al. / Cognition 76 (2000) 13±58 13
This study of Finnish spiritual folk hymns combined three approaches to understanding melodic exp... more This study of Finnish spiritual folk hymns combined three approaches to understanding melodic expectation. The first approach was a statistical style analysis of a representative corpus of 18 hymns, which determined the relative frequencies of tone onsets and two-and three-tone transitions. The second approach was a behavioral experiment in which listeners, either familiar (experts) or unfamiliar (nonexperts) with the hymns, made judgments about melodic continuations. The third approach simulated melodic expectation with neural network models of the self-organizing map (SOM) type (Kohonen, 1997). One model was trained on a corpus of Finnish folk songs and Lutheran hymns (Finnish SOM), while another was trained with the hymn contexts used in the experiment with the correct continuation tone (Hymn SOM). The three approaches converged on the following conclusions: (1) Listeners appear to be sensitive to the distributions of tones and tone transitions in music, (2) The nonexperts' responses more strongly reflected the general distribution of tones, whereas the experts' responses more strongly reflected the tone transitions and the correct continuations, (3) The SOMs produced results similar to listeners and also appeared sensitive to the distributions of tones and tone transitions, (4) The Hymn SOM correlated more strongly with the experts' judgments than the Finnish SOM, and (5) the principles of the implication-realization model (Narmour, 1990) were weighted similarly by the behavioral data and the Hymn SOM.
P Pr ro oc ce ee ed di in ng gs s p pa ap pe er r C Ca at te eg go or ri is si in ng g F Fo ol lk... more P Pr ro oc ce ee ed di in ng gs s p pa ap pe er r C Ca at te eg go or ri is si in ng g F Fo ol lk k M Me el lo od di ie es s U Us si in ng g S Si im mi il la ar ri it ty y R Ra at ti in ng gs s
The ability to classify musical styles is an important and intriguing task from the perspective o... more The ability to classify musical styles is an important and intriguing task from the perspective of music cognition. This process, which listeners usually do effortlessly, involves integrating a number of perceptual processes. Recent summaries on categorisation divide these into two; 1) rule application 2) similarity computations (Smith & Patalano, Jonides, 1998; Hahn & Chater, 1998). This paper considers the latter using the statistical frequencies of events, which have been shown to be influential in learning and perception of language and sound patterns (e.g. Saffran, 1999). We also limit our line of inquiry into melodic similarity, since this allows to test and develop the frequency-based measures of melodic similarity that aim to tackle some of the categorisation and classification challenges music history holds for us.
Syncopations and polyrhythms are usually considered quite common in jazz. Therefore, it would see... more Syncopations and polyrhythms are usually considered quite common in jazz. Therefore, it would seem possible that in addition to basic metrical structures there are also other relatively strong sub-structures caused, for example, by extensive syncopations. In this study the effect of metre on the use of tones in bebop style jazz improvisations was examined. In particular, it was investigated whether there are other periodicities in addition to the basic metrical structures that effect the use of tones.
Statistical methods were used to investigate 18 bebop-styled jazz improvisations based on the so-... more Statistical methods were used to investigate 18 bebop-styled jazz improvisations based on the so- called Rhythm Changes chord progression. The data were compared with results obtained by C. L. Krumhansl and her colleagues in empirical tests investigating the perceived stability of the tones in the chromatic scale in various contexts. Comparisons were also made with data on the statistical distribution of the 12 chromatic tones in actual European art music. It was found that the chorus- level hierarchies (measured over a whole chorus) are remarkably similar to the rating profiles obtained in empirical tests and to the relative frequencies of the tones in European art music. The chord- level hierarchies (measured over single chords) suggest that in the chord progression the improvisers have certain cognitive reference points that are outlined more carefully than the rest of the chords (strong local hierarchy vs. weak local hierarchy). Furthermore, in both analyses, it was found that the metrical structure was used to emphasize or de- emphasize tones, depending on their tonal function.
This article is a study of melodic expectancy in North Sami yoiks, a style of music quite distinc... more This article is a study of melodic expectancy in North Sami yoiks, a style of music quite distinct from Western tonal music. Three different approaches were taken. The ®rst approach was a statistical style analysis of tones in a representative corpus of 18 yoiks. The analysis determined the relative frequencies of tone onsets and two-and three-tone transitions. It also identi®ed style characteristics, such as pentatonic orientation, the presence of two reference pitches, the frequency of large consonant intervals, and a relatively large set of possible melodic continuations. The second approach was a behavioral experiment in which listeners made judgments about melodic continuations. Three groups of listeners participated. One group was from the Sami culture, the second group consisted of Finnish music students who had learned some yoiks, and the third group consisted of Western musicians unfamiliar with yoiks. Expertise was associated with stronger veridical expectations (for the correct next tone) than schematic expectations (based on general style characteristics). Familiarity with the particular yoiks was found to compensate for lack of experience with the musical culture. The third approach simulated melodic expectancy with neural network models of the selforganizing map (SOM) type . Self-organizing maps (2nd ed.). Berlin: Springer). One model was trained on the excerpts of yoiks used in the behavioral experiment including the correct continuation tone, while another was trained with a set of Finnish folk songs and Lutheran hymns. The convergence of the three approaches showed that both listeners and the SOM model are in¯uenced by the statistical distributions of tones and tone sequences. The listeners and SOM models also provided evidence supporting a core C.L. Krumhansl et al. / Cognition 76 (2000) 13±58 13
This study of Finnish spiritual folk hymns combined three approaches to understanding melodic exp... more This study of Finnish spiritual folk hymns combined three approaches to understanding melodic expectation. The first approach was a statistical style analysis of a representative corpus of 18 hymns, which determined the relative frequencies of tone onsets and two-and three-tone transitions. The second approach was a behavioral experiment in which listeners, either familiar (experts) or unfamiliar (nonexperts) with the hymns, made judgments about melodic continuations. The third approach simulated melodic expectation with neural network models of the self-organizing map (SOM) type (Kohonen, 1997). One model was trained on a corpus of Finnish folk songs and Lutheran hymns (Finnish SOM), while another was trained with the hymn contexts used in the experiment with the correct continuation tone (Hymn SOM). The three approaches converged on the following conclusions: (1) Listeners appear to be sensitive to the distributions of tones and tone transitions in music, (2) The nonexperts' responses more strongly reflected the general distribution of tones, whereas the experts' responses more strongly reflected the tone transitions and the correct continuations, (3) The SOMs produced results similar to listeners and also appeared sensitive to the distributions of tones and tone transitions, (4) The Hymn SOM correlated more strongly with the experts' judgments than the Finnish SOM, and (5) the principles of the implication-realization model (Narmour, 1990) were weighted similarly by the behavioral data and the Hymn SOM.
P Pr ro oc ce ee ed di in ng gs s p pa ap pe er r C Ca at te eg go or ri is si in ng g F Fo ol lk... more P Pr ro oc ce ee ed di in ng gs s p pa ap pe er r C Ca at te eg go or ri is si in ng g F Fo ol lk k M Me el lo od di ie es s U Us si in ng g S Si im mi il la ar ri it ty y R Ra at ti in ng gs s
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