INTRODUCTION It has been proved by scientists that the operation of electronic devices depends upon the motion of charged particles within them. Therefore, one should have an understanding of the elements which control the motion of these particles. But as a fact, it is the physical structure of a solid, which exerts this control. Therefore, ‘every electronic engineer should study the structure and arrangement of atoms in solids. STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS A detailed study of X-ray scattering has revealed the fact that most of the solids are crystalline in structure. It means that a solid consists of atoms or molecules which are arranged in a periodic manner. There is always some basic arrangement of atoms, which is repeated throughout the entire solid material. Such an arrangement of atoms within a solid is called crystal lattice, Such solids are called crystalline solids. But there are some other solid materials which do not have 43its magnitudy ; ism Per cubic “The semiconductor, — ‘canbe ncreased by adding avery small amen cdo fre called impurities Examples of nemicos " Table Conduct and Reaativty of Fw Conductors, Semiconshacers Aluminium Porcelain sano” | aoxie “ Glase Ba 10 Hard rubber Lox i0- 4.4, STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM ‘The most fundamental unit of matter is an called the nucleus. A number of smaller part orbits around the nucleus. The nucleusof all protons and neutrons, The mass of proton and neut the two is that the proton is & positively charged particle bu the neutron isan electrically neutral particle Almost total mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus. The electrons which revolve around the nuclews are very light in weight. An electron is almost 1850 times lighter than a proton or neutron. The amount of charge ‘same as that on proton but the charge on ele The matter in the normal state is electrically newt Since an atom isthe most basic building block of matter This ‘should also be neutral. Therefore, to make an atom neutral the number of orbiting electrons must be the same as the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom ‘The three particles, electrons, protons and neutrons are called the fundamental particles of the universe. This mene that there is no difference between an electron in an ato af silver and an electron in an atom of copper Different elements behave differently because of the fact that there a a difference in the number and arrangement ofthe electrons, protons and atten ‘neutrons in atoms of diffrent elements yo eloctrecally charged | ‘The number of protons or electrons in an atom is called its atomic number, For example, hydrogen (H) atom has one proton in its nucleus and one electron around its nucleus ‘Therefore, the atomic number of hydrogen atorn is 1ee eethe acceptor energy evel E. leaving behind holes in the valence bund. Thi procen of comin fan take place even at the Toom temperature. Thus, even st room temperature. large omer Inolos are created inside a P-type semi-conductor. As hols are positively charged the pemmenew of = ange number of holes wil make the wemiconductor a P-type semicon dor gf. CondustioninP ype Samicenducors pe cromenatinlietts juctor is as shown in figure. ban 5 pela r ee shee et Se ; ae ee Beanuinscranel acm, eae cc cee ee Gepostiveterminalottietors, “ES Sl Se eh Senet eer eed «ood ‘cao ay Fig. 1.20. Conduction in a Ptype semconccine 1.19. COMPARISON BETWEEN METALS (CONDUCTORS) AND SEMICONDUCTORS ‘Table 1.4: Comparison Between Metals and Semiconductors (Charge carriers are only electrons Crystalline Has low resistivity or high conductivity Carrier density is high Resistivity increases with temperature Current flows only by drift process 4.20. COMPARISON OF INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS ‘Table 1.5 gives the comparison between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. ‘Table 15. ‘Extremely pure, No impurity added, atoms. Doping Net done ea Number of electrons | Number of electrons is always] They are never equal to each and holes ‘equal to number of holes | other. Conductivity Poor ‘Much higher ‘Due fo electrons and holesFat in the Banks: 1. Theelectrons i th oer met tt of a ste crcaied ‘carone 2 Electrons im the conduction band have ‘cnerey than thous i the name nan N-type nemnonductor the potion of orm level Tan the contre of senegy om. Pree slectrens more ia 11, Ta Pocype semiconductor, the majority carers 12. Dene tp semiconductor otenined by aiding ampunty el valency 18, Semiconductors have ad ‘State whether the Statement is True or False 14 Germansam ins comer, 35 Aluminiom i an inate 16. Conduction band and valence band of Severin each other Which te Swng ste er oa =‘The PN punction: sate eet oy mag we pieces echamtaes an ect ‘form P. ‘A semmcumbacter PS wang farmed wen swale sf the mermrwnahwrt maior ‘es tbicom tip 3 tha ome ogee WX 67oe se other region 1 P-type. * ‘The P-N junction is an important device Decauee all other swmacundaee devine esa one PLN, from the N-region diffuse into the [Link], In the Prego, Uhey combine wi hs or number af oles and N-rognn has mare suber fetes ere there isu difference of concentrations in two regions, Du to this iferemm the foam of ‘holes and electrons takes place. A concentration gradient is praficed sue to tbe differen in concentration. Besides this, the electrons and holes move at rand in all dirwt=os ‘because of thermal energy. Some charge carviers cross the jetion. 4, The process of diffusion jealy for shart perv of time. Afra few recombsoatin is sot up automatically i the neighbourhood of "Asa ceoult ofthis force, further diffs rr "The formation ofthis barrier maya a eeepeea sie pac eee‘Applying Kirchhoff voltage law to the circuit, we ha A Vet Vig = 0 Hence Va Ve Uy Now, we have tno unknowns Vjand I and anly one equation am at torward characteristics of the diode which i an exponential equation Bat saaracaiy aeny ‘ees two equations ie difficult hence, graphical snalyes ured For gapical sxe ta sent Seacteeeeegee naseneet emer gra heater enn 2:0) den Tin santo e's rh en hak ear an 50 Serna Wd seguro sel Set oe ok at - Format Sketehing d.c. load line : According to careers SSS one ie qa (8-90. wre obese thateerd’petate us dct tdci [roma fa.¥2) | ao = io f0| Pia ick eee ras unten 2.0 ‘Point B, T,=0, hence, V;= Vj, according to * cqusten 20 Tepe nec lp ie _x intercept of the line. as Moo fos ning he yin A ond i aed die oad inte Ste can thie a ei Ber chriie of the diode. The forward characteristics already Seen m5. oe a tet rp Toned agh swnye 2.0 8 2.21.4. Operating Point (@ Point) ‘The relation between V; and Irs predefined forthe device interms ofits forward characteristics [Firen in tho datashect ofthe diode. For the given circuit conditions, Vand relationship even br the dec load line. vet ‘Tis also called as dc biasing point forthe diode, Remember that practically points A and B may not be ‘and B are theoretical points used to ‘The pints seer Te oad ine,The Practical operating point i BretG point. Renrranging the equation (2.0), we have Na %, 31) ye Nar ew y= mx+C‘| i‘eeTT _—