Non-metals General * Define a non-metal. Properties of + Describe the physical and chemical properties of non-metals. fon-metals Hydrogen _ > Demonstrate the laboratory preparation, collection and test for hydrogen gas. ‘ + Describe the physical and chemical properties of hydrogen gas. * Describe the Industrial manufacture of hydrogen gas. « Describe the uses of hydrogen gas. » Demonstrate the laboratory preparation, collection and test for oxygen gas. Describe the physical and chemical properties of oxygen gas. Deseribe the industrial manufacture of oxygen gas. Describe the uses of oxygen in industry and in natural processes. Expiain the importance of the ozone layer and dangers of its depletion. Demonstrate the chemical test for water. Describe the importance of water as.a solvent. Describe the thermal dissociation of ammonia salts. Describe the uses of ammonia. Describe the manufacture of nitric acid. Explain the importance of nitrogenous fertilizers. Describe the effect of nitrogenous fertilizers on the environment. Describe allotropes. Describe the physical properties of the allotropes of carbon. Describe the uses of lime and siaked lime. Describe the uses of limestone. Describe the greenhouse effect. Topic 7 Nonments 109SCs ele usgeil (Sub-topics 1 to 3) Answer the following questions in pairs, and then discuss as a class: 1. Explain where the non-metals are found on the Periodic Table. 2. List ten elements (their names and symbols) that are non-metals. 3. Of the listed elements in Question 2, which ones are: a) solids at room temperature b) liquids at room temperature gases at room temperature @) found in air (atmosphere) ©) not found in air (atmosphere) f) diatomic molecules in their natural state? 4. Name five common compounds that contain non-metals. 5. Complete the table below by listing some differences between the physical Properties of metals and non-metals: SEEEEINZT ub-toics sana 5 Answer the following questions in pairs, and then discuss as a class: 1. Explain, by means of a dot-and-cross diagram, how a nitrogen molecule forms from two nitrogen atoms. 2. Name two common uses of ammonia. 3. Explain how fertilizers are useful to farmers and gardeners. 4. Name three sources of carbon dioxide. 5. Explain the link between climate change and carbon dioxide. 110 Topic 7 Non-mnetalsTa “TOPIC 1 General properties of non-metals We first learnt about the non-metals in Grade 10. Recall the following facts about non-metals: ‘+ Non-metals are found on the far right-hand side of the Periodic Table, with the exception of hydrogen, which is in Group I. * They include all the gases, such as hydrogen, helium and oxygen, but also solids such as carbon and a liquid (bromine). + Non-metal ions form when atoms of non-metals gain electrons, thereby forming (negatively charged) anions. The anion is generally represented as X", where n is the number of electrons gained. + “These elements have between four and seven electrons in their outermost Figure 1 The arrangement of metals, non-metals and metalloids in the Periodic Table Physical properties of non-metals The non-metals: | temperature and pressure —— * are poor (bad) conductors of both heat and Graphite, which is a form of electricity (because they do not have free- carbon, conducts electricity even though itis a non-metal. moving electrons in. their structures) + are dull in appearance + have low densities * are brittle (non-metal solids can break easily) + generally have very low melting points and low boiling points, Sub topic 1 General propertics of non-metas 111Chemical properties of non-metals ‘The non-metals: New words * are generally electronegative in nature * form acidic and neutral oxides when reacted electronegative: the ability to with oxygen (for example, SO, and CO, are gain electrons easily acidic oxides of non-metals, while CO and — st cm ate \at bring about oxidation by N,O are neutral oxides of non-metals) Gavndeenonsin cherie + are very powerful oxidizing agents reaction * do not form hydrogen gas when they react with acids * form chlorides which can be solids, liquids or gases. Uses of non-metals Non-metals have found a wider use in our day-to-day lives. For example: * Chlorine is used in the purification of water and as a bleaching agent. * Bromine is used in dyes and pesticides + Small amounts of iodine are needed in our bodies to prevent the swelling of the thyroid gland. It is also used as an antiseptic * Neon is used for advertizing in neon signs. * Helium is used for filling balloons because it is light and not reactive. > Some non-metals (such as nitrogen) are used in fertilizers. * Oxygen is the key element in cellular respiration in plants, animals and humans. + Graphite (a form of carbon) is used to make pencils. Figure 2 The uses of some non-metals: nitrogen for fertilizers (A), graphite for pencils (B) and neon for neon signs (C) CENIENE No mctal Answer the following questions on. 1. Describe what a non-metal is. 2. State five physical properties and five chemical properties of non-metals. 3, Name two uses of non-metals. 4. Which of the following elements are non-metals: oxygen, lithium, chlorine, copper and sulphur? 112 topic 7 Non-metalsTOPIC2 Hydrogen Hrdogenisthelghtetcenent Anon = drogen contains one electron and one proton Hydrogen gas makes up about ly. It occurs naturally asa diatomic molecule 796 of the mass of the universe, {H,) and forms more compounds than any other clement. On earth, hydrogen is actually quite rare. It is not part of the air in the atmosphere, but it does occur in water, natural gas and petroleum. Hydrogen gas: preparation and collection Hydrogen can be prepared in the laboratory by the following reactions: 1. Reactive metal + water > hydroxide + hydrogen gas Example: Ca(s) + 2,0 (1) > Ca(OH), (aq) + Hg) 2. Reactive metal + steam > metal oxide + hydrogen gas Example: Mg (s) + HO (g) > MgO(s) +H, (3) 3. Reactive metal + dilute acid — salt + hydrogen gas Example: Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ~ ZnCl, (aq) +H, (g) The hydrogen gas prepared using Reaction 3 above can be collected by either the downward SS eeeceaee: displacement of water or the upward delivery ‘See note on page 97. method. ‘The downward displacement of water The upward delivery method Hydrogen gas is insoluble in water and Hydrogen gas is less dense than air the water downwards as it rises and will float to the top of the test tube, to the top of the gas jar. pushing the air downwards. & hydrogen gas | gas gas jar airjarcontaining | sound. 2H.) + 0,6) +2H,0M the gas. The water helps to extinguish the burning splint. C= Laboratory preparation of hydrogen gas ‘This experiment will be demonstrated by yout teacher. caf all vib fo prepare hydrogen gas and test for the gas | 1 x beehive shelf thistle 1 x water bath ‘unnet eee ~ 1 x thistle funnel at + 1x gas jar rubber r 1 x delivery tube sere ig 1 x conical flask conical 50 ml 3 M HCL —_ zine granules 1 x rubber stoy zine I l with two holes; mies exit | © blue and red litmus | Figure 3 Experiment set-uy | * matches 1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 3. 1x wood splint 2. Allow a few drops of HCl to drop onto the zinc. "3. Collect the hydrogen gas in the gas jar. 4. Quickly remove the gas jar from the water bath and perform the test for hydrogen. | 5. ‘Test the liquid that forms in the gas jar with litmus paper. Observations | 1. What colour is the hydrogen gas in the gas jar? 2. What did you observe when the burning splint was placed in the gas jar? 3. Did the liquid have any effect on the red or blue litmus papers? Conclusion 1. Which property of hydrogen allows us to use this method of collection? 2. Write down a balanced chemical equation for the reaction that takes place in the conical flask. 114 topic 7 Non-metaisPhysical and chemical properties of hydrogen In terms of physical properties, hydrogen gas is: © colourless, tasteless and odourless * insoluble in water * neither acid nor alkaline when tested with litmus paper © the lightest of all the gases (it is 20 times lighter than air). In terms of chemical properties, hydrogen gas: . coe ee bums with a smokeless blue flame to form water , according to this equation: H.(g) + O.(g) > HO) - Saran trad copper(I) oxide to form solid copper, according to this, equation: CuO (s) + Hig) "> Cu(s) + 1.0%) Industrial manufacture of hydrogen Hydrogen gas is manufactured using one of the industrial methods that follow. 1. Cracking When certain molecules that contain carbon and hydrogen are cracked (broken) into smaller molecules, hydrogen gas is produced. For example, when methane (CH) is cracked, carbon and hydrogen gas are produced. However, this process is very expensive, so it is not currently used on a large scale, ‘We will learn more about cracking in Topic 8. 2. Electrolysis of brine (salt water) A concentrated salt water solution, or brine, can produce hydrogen gas if it undergoes electrolysis. This process also produces two other industrially useful chemicals: chlorine gas and sodium H, (23) hydroxide. a An electric current is passed through two =a electrodes that are in ’ contact with the brine but Ho => we separated by means of a “ Te, membrane. The chemical v5 reactions that occur at each yse4,¢> electrode are responsible for ~ oo the products. Figure 4 The electrolysis of brine produces hydrogen gas and other products. Sub-topic 2 Hydrogen 115,3. Steam reforming A natural gas (usually methane) undergoes steam reforming in a two-stage process. Stage 1: Methane and steam are passed over a hot nickel catalyst at 900°C. The reaction produces carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas. CH, ig) + H,0(g) "+ COW) + 3H, (g) Stage 2: The products from Stage 1 are mixed with more steam and passed over a hot iron catalyst at $00 °C. The carbon monoxide is converted to carbon dioxide, which is easily separated from the hydrogen gas. CO(S) + H,0(g) FES > CO, (g) + HAS) ‘The mixture of carbon dioxide and hydrogen {s passed through very cold water at high pressure to dissolve the carbon dioxide. The hydrogen gas bubbles out of the water and is dried as it passes through silica gel, Uses of hydrogen gas Industrially, hydrogen gas is used: * in the manufacture of ammonia (the Haber process): N, (g) + H, (g) 7" 2NH, (2) * as an environmentally-friendly fuel (when it burns in oxygen, it forms water, not greenhouse gases) in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid: hydrogen reacts with chlorine (FH, (g) + CL, (g) > 2HG g)) and the resulting hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in water to form a solution of hydrochloric acid ¢ in the hardening of oils in the manufacture of margarine. become more common alll over the world. [ Activitys | Hydrogen gas Answer the following questions on your own: 1, Name three sources of hydrogen. 2. State four physical properties of hydrogen. 3. State two chemical properties of hydrogen. 4. Magnesium reacts with water, steam and acids to produce hydrogen. ‘Complete the following equations: a) Mg(s) + 00) >... b) Mg(s) + HCl(aq) > O Mgis) + H,0(@) >. 116 Topic 7 Non-menals-TOPIC3 Oxygen Oxygen is found as a diatomic molecule in nature. ‘The atmosphere contains approximately 21% of oxygen gas. It also occurs in water, sand, silicates and many minerals in the form of an oxide. Oxygen gas: preparation and collection In the laboratory, oxygen is prepared by: © the thermal catalytic decomposition of potassium chlorate: KCIO, (s) {=> KCIO (s) + O, (g) * the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (see Activity 4 below). The test for oxygen gas a Place a glowing splint in a jar containing the Been The correct combination of fuel, heat and oxygen is necessary for combustion to occur. The glowing splint has enough fuel (the splint itself) and heat, but not enough oxygen is present in the air for it to re-ignite. Once in the presence of pure oxygen, the splint easily re-ignites. [Activity | Laboratory preparation of oxygen gas Carry out this experiment (on this page and the next) in pairs. Materials 5 Aim ‘You will need: To prepare oxygen gas by means of the decomposition © 2x test tubes of hydrogen peroxide © 1x test tube stand * 1x wooden splint ; Procedure | * matches 2 1. Place the test tube containing the hydrogen | * 20 ml of 30% : peroxide solution in the test tube stand. hydrogen peroxide: 2. Leamer 1 lights the splint so that it glows, but solution 3 does not burn with a flame. Learner 2 gets ready * Smlof2M to pour the KI solution into the test tube. potassium iodide 3. Leamer 2 quickly pours the KI solution into the (KD) solution test tube and stands back. 4. Learner 1 brings the glowing splint to the mouth 5 of the test tube. See Figure 7 on the next page. Sub-topic 3 Oxygen 117| Observations ae ‘What happened to the wooden splint when it of it was brought near the first test tube? Pe warnce | Ta and Ki solstion —— | 1. Explain the role of the glowing wooden splint. test | 2. Explain the role of the potassium iodide woe | solution: was it a reactant or a catalyst? 3. Write down a balanced chemical | equation for the reaction that occurred. Figure 7 Experiment set-up Physical and chemical properties of oxygen In terms of physical properties, oxygen gas is: * colourless and odourless © ess dense than air * slightly soluble in water neither acidic nor alkaline See cemeiae Biguee § Cignen ie needled for this match to burn, but oxygen itself does not bum. In terms of chemical properties, oxygen gas Teacts with: * non-metals in combustion reactions to form acidic oxides, For example: » 2C(s) + O,(g) -» 2CO(g) Note: The oxygen gas is limited. » G(s) + O,(g) + CO,(g) Note: The oxygen gas is in excess. » S(s) +O,(g) + 80,(g)__ Note: The oxygen gas is limited. * metals to form basic oxides, For example: » 4Na(s) + O,(g) >» 2Na,0(s) » 2Cals) + O,(g) > 2Ca0 (s) ‘Sodium oxide (Na,O) is an » 3Fe(s) +20, (3) > FeO, (8) IOS ERS eae Industrial manufacture of oxygen Oxygen is obtained from the air by the process called the fractional distillation of liquid air. Step 1: The air is filtered to remove any dust particles. Step 2: It is cooled to get rid of water vapour, and then processed to remove all the carbon dioxide and pollutants. 18 topic 7 Non-metals3: The air is compressed and then cooled to -200 °C, where it is liquid except for the neon and helium fractions. These two fractions are removed and separated from each other at this point. 4: The liquefied air is sent to the fractionating column where the nitrogen gas is boiled off first, before the oxygen and argon are separated from each other. The boiling points of these fractions are: » Nitrogen: -196 °C » Argon: —186°C » Oxygen: -183 °C Step 5: The fractions are stored in gas cylinders for future use. ~ 1s iat Figure 9 The acacia aca of Uses of oxygen gas liquid air Industrially, oxygen is used: + in the production of steel (oxygen is blown through molten steel to purify it) * in metal cutting and welding; the gas is mixed with acetylene to form oxy- acetylene. At high pressure, the mixture burns strongly to produce a flame that is able to cut through metals by melting them. Metal welding (joining) is done in the same way. . as an aid to help people breathe where Figure 10. Oxygen is needed for natural supply of oxygen is insufficient EAS WG (for example, hospital patients, mountain climbers and deep-sea divers) © asa fuel. Naturally, oxygen plays an important role in: * the respiration of organisms: this involves the burning of glucose (fuel) to produce carbon dioxide, water and energy. * rusting: a reaction takes place between iron, water and the oxygen in air to form a brown substance with the chemical formula, Fe,O,-xH,O, where x can be any whole number. i. Sub-toptc3 Oxygen 119Ozone An ozone molecule consists of three oxygen atoms (0,). Above the troposphere and below the stratosphere is a layer of ozone that protects the earth from the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) Sees radiation. Without it, too much UV radiation would reach the earth, and destroy most forms of life. thermosphere Man-made chemicals in the atmosphere can deplete this ws layer of ozone. In the 1980s, it was found that substances weenie containing chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), such as refrigerants and —_troposphere erosol cans, were slowly destroying the ozone layer. ‘The CFCs are chemically unreactive in their containers, but are able to react with UV light, which splits them to give free chlorine radicals. These radicals break the ozone down to oxygen gas. ‘The dangers of ozone layer depletion include skin cancer (due to too much UV radiation) and respiratory diseases such as asthma and emphysema. Figure 11 The different layers of the earth's Water Waser San cca ot vines. Texte: its true chemical name is hydrogen on Water: * is. a colourless, odourless liquid with a flat taste * is neutral to litmus * has a density of 1 g/cm’ at 4°C * boils at 100°C and freezes at 0 °C. Figure 12 A water molecule has an angular shape. 120 topic 7 Non-meratsThe tests for water a) ES Adda few ‘The white Anhydrous copper) sulphate is able to drops of liquid copper(l) incorporate some water molecules into its anhydrous copper(tl) sulphate turns blue if water is coystal structure to form hydrated coppertti) sulphate: sulphat: present in the GuSO, (s) + SH,O () + GuS0,.5H,0 (aq) sample. Hydrated copper(l) sulphate is biue in colour. Let a few Theblue Cobailt(l) chloride is also able to incorporate drops ofthe —_cobaititl) some water molecules into its crystal sample land chloride turns ‘structure: ‘on some pinkif water is CoC, (s) + 6H,O () + CoCl,,.6H.,0 (aq) cobait(it) | present in the Hydrated cobalt(II) chloride is pink in colour. chloride. | sample. Importance of water Pe eRe ei oleate’ * drinking and cooking * washing and bathing * water sports Pee we ecu) imigation livestock farming extraction of minerals hydroelectric power a transportation processing of food and drink manufacture of chemicals Figure 13 Water plays an important part in Zambia's economy, as a tourist attraction. Oxygen and water Answer the following questions on your owt 1. In which group and period of the Periodic Table is oxygen found? 2. One laboratory preparation of oxygen involves the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide using a catalyst. a) Write down a balanced chemical equation for the reaction that takes place. b) Name a catalyst that can be used in this reaction. © How would you prove that the gas prepared is oxygen? d) What do you understand by the term “catalyst”? 3. Name the method that is used to obtain oxygen from air. 4. Water is an oxide of hydrogen, a) What are the boiling point and freezing point of water? b) Explain how you would test for the presence of water in a substance. ©) Name two industrial uses of water, Sub-topic 3 Oxygen 121SUB-TOPIC 4 Nitrogen Nitrogen occupies around 79% of the total volume of the air around us. In its free state, it exists as a diatomic molecule (N,) in which the atoms are joined together by a triple covalent bond. These bonds are incredibly strong, so nitrogen gas does not readily react under ordinary conditions. Industrial manufacture of nitrogen Nitrogen gas is obtained from the air by fractional distillation of liquid air. See pages 118 and 119 for the details of this process. Physical and chemical properties of nitrogen gas In terms of physical properties, nitrogen gas is: * colourless and odouriess © less dense than air. In terms of chemical properties, hydrogen gas is: * generally inert, although it does react with some substances under very specific conditions * only slightly soluble in water, Uses of nitrogen gas © When liquefied, nitrogen gas is used to quick-freeze foods and liquids. For example: » some foods are frozen using liquid nitrogen at the factories where they are produced, so that they can be transported to shops » at hospitals, liquid nitrogen is used to keep tissue samples frozen » in industrial plants, liquid nitrogen is used to freeze liquids in pipes that need repairing ~ that way, the pipe is repaired. Figure 15 The boiling point of nitrogen is -195.8 °C, so below without any liquid being lost in this temperature, nitrogen exists the process. aS a liquid. Liquid nitrogen is used ‘© Nitrogen gas that is prepared industrially is for rapid freezing and cooling used to make ammonia (see page 124). other substances. 122 topic 7 Non-metalsBecause it is unreactive, nitrogen gas can be used to prevent fires. It is pumped ‘into the empty spaces in oil tankers to avoid any accidental ignition of vapours. It is also pumped into food packaging to keep the food fresher for longer. By replacing the air (oxygen) in the packaging with nitrogen gas, there is less chance of the food spoiling due to exposure to air. monia - The ammonia molecule contains one nitrogen atom. ‘bonded to three hydrogen atoms by single covalent = bonds. Ammonia gas is found in trace quantities in the atmosphere, because it is released into the atmosphere ‘through the decay of animal and plant matter. Figure 16 The ammonia 3 ¥ molecule has three Laboratory preparation of ammonia ___ single covalent bonds. Ammonia is made in the laboratory by reacting om an ammonium salt with an alkali. For example: NH,gas 4 fountain 2NH,Cl(aq) + Ca(OH), (aq) -> CaCl, (aq) + P = 2H,0 (1) + 2NH, (g) lonically, the reaction is: 2 2NH; (aq) + OH (aq) > 2NH, (g) + H,O0) - Ca pellets The salt and alkali mixture is heated, and then }-—— drying tube ‘the ammonia gas is collected and dried by & passing it through calcium oxide pellets. Since test tube ammonia gas is soluble in water, it cannot be collected by the displacement of water. Instead, NHC land Cafory, bcae it is collected by the downward displacement of air due to its low density. —— Bunsen burner Deb earint Mt Figure 17 A simplified diagram oe ee showing how ammonia is prepared and collected ina laboratory. The test for ammonia gas co ret) ever Bringadamp = Thedamp When ammonia dissolves in the water on the fed litmus paper litmus paper litmus paper, it forms ammonium hydroxide, lose to the turns blue if the _ which is a base. The base turns red litmus Paper bive.Industrial preparation of ammonia The Haber process is the method that is used to produce ammonia on an industrial scale. Fritz Haber discovered a way to Ammonia is an important commercial chemical, produce ammonia on a large as it is used to make fertilizers for agriculture. scale in 1908. This method made it possible to produce The Haber process fertilizers and explosives In this process, nitrogen gas (from the fractional i distillation of air) and hydrogen gas (from. methane steam reforming) are combined to form ammonia in a reversible reaction. Step 1 The mixture of gases is purified and then compressed until the pressure in ; reaches about 250 atmosphere. Mi Step 2 The compressed gas mixture is pumped > Basie into the converter chamber, where it o flows over beds of fine iron pellets, which act as the catalyst in the reaction. The temperature in this chamber is kept at a high temperature (around 500 °C). Step 3. The reaction that occurs is N, (g) + 311, (g) = 2NH, (g), but only about 12% of the mixture is converted to ammonia gas. So, the remaining (unreacted) gas mixture is sent through the converter again and again, until all of the mixture has been converted. i i 3 : 2 NP oH epee + Figure 18 A schomatic diagram of the Haber process 124 Topic? Non-metalsPhysical and chemical properties of ammonia gas In terms of physical properties, ammonia gas: ‘thas a pungent smell is a colourless and poisonous gas Ammonia is the only known does not bun in air ae is less dense than air and can easily be liquefied turns damp red litmus paper blue is soluble in water and forms ammonia solution. Dit u know? oe ees In terms of chemical properties, ammonia gas: reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to form dense, white fumes >» NH,(g) + HCl(g) = NH,Cl(s) reacts as a reducing agent (so it is oxidized in a reduction-oxidation reaction). In the equation below, copper oxide is reduced to pure copper in the presence of ammonia, a reducing agent. F oil Sx: e : 3 (6) + 2NH, (@) —> 3: ©) +H_O() + N,Q) eran sone * burns in oxygen to form nitrogen gas and by donating electrons in a mater chemical reaction, and in the » 4NH,(g) +0,(g) ~ 2N,(g) + 6H,0Q) papooes |e Rall eratoed In terms of chemical properties, aqueous ammonia (NH,OW): * reacts with an acid to form a salt and water only » for example: NH,OH (aq) + HCI (aq) > NH,Cl (aq) + H,0 0) * is used to prepare metal hydroxides when reacted with metallic salts. » for example: Cu(NO,), (aq) + 2NH,OH (aq) -» Cu(OH), (5) + 2NH,NO, (aq) CERT Nitrogen and ammoni Answer the following questions in pairs: 1, State two uses of nitrogen gas. 2. Ammonia can be prepared by the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen gas. a) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen. b) Name the process used to manufacture ammonia. ©) State where the nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas come from for the Haber process. 3. Describe how you would test a gas sample to see if it is ammonia. 4. Write a balanced equation to show how ammonia gas and hydrochloric acid gas react. 5. List four physical properties of ammonia gas. Sub-topic 4 Nitrogen 125Thermal decomposition of ammonium salts Ammonium salts either decompose or sublime (changes (NH,C1 subsienate "tune directly from a solid to a gas) _ NH and HOI gas— es ie when they are heated. 1, When heated, ammonium chloride sublimes to Bunsen burner ammonia gas and hydrogen a giles 4 chloride gas. When cooled, aad the opposite reaction occurs: Figure 19 NH,CI sublimes when heated and NH,CI(5) = NH, (g) + HCl(g)__ creates deposits higher up on the cooler part 2. When heated, ammonium of the funnel. nitrate decomposes to produce dinitrogen oxide gas (N,O) and water: NH,NO, (s) —> N,0 (g) + 2,00) 3. When heated, ammonium carbonate decomposes to form carbon dioxide, water and ammonia gas; (NH,),CO, (aq) ~» CO, (g) + H,O (I) + 2NH, (g) Uses of ammonia Ammonia is used: * in the manufacture of nitric acid (sce below) * in the manufacture of fertilizers such as ammonium nitrate (NH,NO,) and ammonium sulphate ((NH,),S0,) = asa refrigerant because it liquifies easily and is a liquid at ~3: "C * as a household cleaner for softening water and removing grease stains from clothes + to make manufacture explosives and gunpowder. Manufacture of nitric acid Nitric acid reacts with ammonia to form an important fertilizer, ammonium nitrate. For this mE aasidae a asm, mite acids industrially Prepared BY the sit of nie because itis a process, which occurs in three stages. (oe tomee adie ol Stage 1 Ammonia reacts with oxygen in the presence of platinum-rhodium alloy catalyst at 900 °C to form nitrogen monoxide: ANH, (g) + SO, (g) » 4NO(g) + 6H, (g), Stage 2 The nitrogen monoxide is cooled and reacted with more oxygen to produce nitrogen dioxide, which is a brown gas: 2NO (g) + O, (g) > 2NO, (g). Stage 3 The nitrogen dioxide is dissolved in water to produce nitric acid and more nitrogen monoxide: 3NO, (g) + H,0 (I) -> 2HNO, (aq) + NO (g). The nitrogen monoxide is reused to produce more nitric acid. 126 Topic 7 Non-metalsImportance of nitrogenous fertilizers All fertilizers that contain nitrogen (nitrogenous fertilizers) are made from ammonia, which is produced using the Haber process. This family of fertilizers consists of soluble salts that contain the essential elements for better plant growth. So, apart from nitrogen, they also contain the elemental nutrients, potassium and phosphorus. Examples of nitrogenous fertilizers include: potassium nitrate (KNO,) ammonium nitrate (NH .NO,) ammonium sulphate ((NH)SO,) ammonium phosphate ((NH,),PO,) urea (CO(NH,).)- Because all three nutrients are essential to the plants, these fertilizers are also (collectively) called NPK compound fertilizers. The yield of crops that can be grown on a piece of land depends on the soil quality, the climatic conditions and the availability of water and plant nutrients. Only 31% of the total land area of Zambia is used for crop production, but we can increase the yield by supplying the appropriate amount of nutrients in the form of fertilizers. At harvest, nutrients are removed from the soil and they need to be replaced. A Figure 20 Zambia depends on fertilizers to ensure a good agricultural production output: A potato farmers with large commercial farms, B tomato farmers that use greenhouses and C even flower farmers that export their produce to Europe all rely on fertilizers to increase their yields. Between 1950 and 2000, the world population increased from 2.5 billion to 6 billion people. It is predicted that there will be more than 7.5 billion people on the planet by 2020. So, the need for increased food production has never been greater. Subtopic 4 Ninogen 127Effects of nitrogenous fertilizers on the environment Nitrogenous fertilizers are very soluble in water, which is why plants easily absorb the nutrients. But it also means that these fertilizers are easily washed out of the soil by the rain, and end up in ‘water systems. Other consequences include: 1. Eutrophication: Excess fertilizer that is washed into rivers causes algae in the water to grow. When the algae die, they are decomposed by bacteria. This activity by bacteria uses up the oxygen dissolved in water. As a result, there is little or no oxygen left for fish or other forms of life in the river, so they die due to lack of oxygen. This process is called eutrophication. 2. Soils that are too acidic: This damages the structure of the soil, increases soil erosion and may kill soil micro-organisms. . Crops that are more susceptible to diseases and pests: Too much available nitrogen in a plant can actually encourage disease and pests such as aphids. . Crop quality problems: With too much fertilizer, the ctop grows too fast and too densely. The overuse of nitrogenous fertilizers reduces the protein content of wheat, maize and other grains. Excess New word potassium in the soil decreases the Becca has vitamin C content of fruits and vegetables. _ eutrophication: the process of 5. Unsafe drinking water supplies: The increasing nutrients in a water surrounding water sources becomes unsafe ody, So that algal blooms _ pain " suffocate the other forms of life to drink due to high nitrate concentrations. i918 wetarac they deplete the Cpa Nitrogenous fertilizers vgn supply of the water Answer the following questions on your own: 1. Write the three reactions that take place in the Ostwald process. 2. List the essential elements that nitrogenous fertilizers supply to plants. 3. A farmer conducts some trials on his farm. He applies different amounts of fertilizer to 10 different, but equally-sized, maize fields at the beginning of the growing season. During the harvest season, he measures the total mass produced on each field. The graph below indicates his results. a) Using the graph, determine the optimum amount of fertilizer that the farmer should apply to each field for the following growing season. b) The graph is divided into three sections labelled A, B and C. ‘What conclusion can the farmer draw from: i) section A of the graph OR ee OF OR ii) section B of the graph? ‘Amount of fertilizer used per field (units) ©) Give a possible explanation for the trend shown in section C of the graph. » » Mass of maize crop (t) 128 ropic 7 Non-metalsB-TOPICS Carbon and carbonates In nature, carbon occurs most commonly in one of two solid forms, namely diamond and graphite. Figure 21 Both graphite (A) and diamond (B) are made of only carbon atoms. New word Allotropes of carbon allotropes: different structural forms of the same element that Both diamond and graphite consist of carbon exetn the piyestalaive atoms only, but their structures are different. Molecules that consist of atoms of one element, but have different stractures and geometrical shapes (and therefore different physical properties) are called allotropes. The property of an element by which it can exist in different forms is called allotropy. Graphite ‘This form of carbon is commonly found as soot, charcoal or dehydrated skeletal remains of humans and animals. The carbon atoms of graphite are arranged in rings of six atoms and they are joined together in large flat sheets. The sheets lie on top of one another and are held together by very weak forces. As a result, these sheets are able to slide over one another. ‘The structure of graphite therefore explains Figure 22 The physical some of its physical properties. Graphite: structure of graphite © is soft and greasy to touch, so it is used asa lubricant since its flat sheets are able to slide over one another + is black in colour * conducts electricity, which is unusual for a non-metal. Carbon has four electrons in its outermost shell, but in graphite, each carbon atom only uses three electrons to form three bonds. Therefore each carbon atom has a free electron which is free to move and carry an electric current. * bums slowly in air. Sub-topte 5 Catton and cazbonates 129Diamond Diamond is very rare, and therefore very expensive. It is formed when graphite in the ground is subjected to extremely high pressures and temperatures. This structure is very different to that of graphite in that the carbon atoms are joined together in a very strong tetrahedral arrangement. Again. the structure of diamond explains some of its physical properties: © Diamond is the hardest naturally-occuring substance. Small particles of diamond are embedded in a saw blade, a drill bit or a grinding wheel for the purpose of cutting, drilling or grinding. It can also be ground into a powder and made into-a paste that is used for polishing, or for very fine grinding. Pure diamonds are colourless, but sparkle in light. This is due to the light entering the crystal reflected from face to face inside the crystal before being reflected but again. Diamonds do not conduct electricity. This is because all the electrons in the outermost shell are used in bonding and so none is left to transfer change. Diamond can only bum at extremely high Figure 23 The physical temperatures. ‘structure of graphite Carbon monoxide (Carbon monoxide (CO) is a gas that can be toxic to - humans in high concentrations, Although not a ( ote } greenhouse gas, it is found in relatively high of concentrations in the atmosphere because it is ~ produced as a by-product of petrol and diesel engines. Figure 24 The triple covalent Ina carbon monoxide molecule, the carbon bond in carbon monoxide atom forms three covalent bonds with the oxygen atom. But, since the carbon. atom only has four valence electrons and oxygen has six valence electrons, the oxygen atom donates four electrons to the bond: two electrons form covalent bonds with the two electrons from the carbon atom, and two form a covalent bond on their own. Formation of carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide is formed by: * the reduction of carbon dioxide by carbon: CO, (g) + C(s) > 2C0(g) Carbon monoxide can be prepared in a laboratory by adding HCI te CaCO, (to produce CO,,), and then passing the CO, over heated carbon to reduce the gas to CO. The gas is further purified to remove any traces of carbon dioxide by means of potassium hydroxide (KOH). Carbon monoxide is insoluble in water, so the final gas product is collected over water. 130 topic 7 Non-metals* the incomplete combustion of carbon: 2C(5) + O, (g) 2CO) Carbon monoxide is formed whenever fuel is burnt and there is not enough oxygen for all the available fuel (carbon) to convert to carbon dioxide. So, all cars, gas stoves and fires produce some amount of carbon monoxide as a by-product. Physical and chemical properties of carbon monoxide In terms of physical properties, carbon monoxide is: + acolourless, tasteless, odourless gas -S Se * slightly soluble in water with haemoglobin in the blood * very poisonous * slightly less dense than air. acuneneen oan ‘This compound prevents the formation of oxyhaemogiobin, which transports oxygen in the flammable in air or oxygen, and bums with a Ce canbe blue flame to form carbon dioxide gas Soran occ » 200 (g) + O,(g) + 2CO, (g) suffocates, a reducing agent, which means that it donates electrons in a chemical reaction. For example, it reduces copperill) ‘oxide to copper and lead(II) oxide to lead: » CuO(s) + CO(g) > Cu(s) + CO.) >» PO (s) + CO(g)-» Ph(s) + CO, (g) Carbon allotropes and carbon monoxide er the following questions on your own: Carbon is an element on the Periodic Table with an atomic number of 6 and a mass number of 12. a) Draw the electronic structure of a carbon atom. b) State the group and period to which carbon belongs. Carbon occurs as an allotrope. a) Explain what allotropes are. ‘b) Name the two most common allotropes of carbon. ©) State three differences between the two allotropes named in Question 2b). Carbon monoxide is an oxide of carbon. a) State three physical properties of carbon monoxide. ) Draw the dot-and-cross diagram for carbon monoxide. Sub-topic § Carbon and carbonates 131Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide gas (CO.) is an essential Pa x a atmospheric gas, even though it only occupies e ote ) less than 0.05% of the volume of ait. It is a MTEC es product of respiration and combustion, and also Figure 25 A carbon atom and a primary greenhouse gas. two oxygen atome are covalently In a carbon dioxide molecule, the carbon bonded in carbon dioxide. atom forms strong double covalent bonds with cach oxygen atom. It is the most stable oxide of carbon. Laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide gas Carbon dioxide can be prepared in a laboratory using any of the methods that follow. 1. Heating carbonates Some carbonates will decompose when heated to give a solid oxide and carbon dioxide gas: catbonate “5 metal oxide + carbon dioxide For example: ote . 10, (8) = CuO(s) + CO, (g) é colleen * CaCO, (5) “= Cad (5) + CO.) an arene = + ZnCO, (5) ZnO (5) + CO,(g) molecules, and s0 will not decompose. 2. Heating metal hydrogen carbonates Hydrogen carbonates will decompose when heated to give a solid carbonate, liquid water and carbon dioxide gas: hydrogen carbonate ™, carbonate + water + carbon dioxide For example; * 2NaHCO, (5) wt, Na,CO, (3) + HO) + CO, (g) 3. Reacting calcium carbonate with an acid Marble chips (calcium carbonate) react with dilute hydrochloric acid to release carbon dioxide: CaCO, (5) + HCI (aq) -» CaCl, (aq) + 1,0) + CO, (g) Carbon dioxide is more dense than air and soluble in water, so in this method it is collected by the upward displacement of air, as seen in Figure 27 on the next page. 132 topic 7 Non-metalsPhysical and chemical thistle tunnel properties of carbon i vee dioxide In terms of physical properties, carbon dioxide: is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas is one-and-a-half times heavier than air is slightly soluble in water mattie chips — Nga aaet © does not support Sree combustion. Figure 27 The preparation and collection of carbon dioxide In terms of chemical properties, carbon dioxide: * reacts with lime water (calcium dioxide solution) to give a white precipitate. This is the identity precipitate test for carbon dioxide gas. (See below.) However, if excess carbon dioxide gas is passed through the solution, the white precipitate will dissolve to form a colourless solution: CaCO, (s) + CO, (g) + H,0 @) > CaCO), (aq) dissolves in water to form a weak acidic solution of carbonic acid for example: CO, (g) + H,0 (1) + H,CO, (aq). reacts with an alkaline solution to produce a salt and water only for example: CO, (g) + Na,OH (aq) + Na,CO, (aq) + H,0 (). The test for carbon dioxide gas Le it oe Bubble the The lime water _If the gas is carbon dioxide, it will react with the gas through tums amilky _ calcium hydroxide solution to produce a calcium A solution of | white colour. | carbonet, according to this equation: lime water CO, (g) + Ca(OH), (aq) > CaCO, (5) + H,0.() (calcium Calcium carbonate is a white precipitate that | hydroxide). | Creates the milky appearance of the solution. | Uses of carbon dioxide CPR reneates Carbon dioxide is used: When carbon dioxide is cooled 1. in fire extinguishers and compressed, it turns into 2. in the manufacture of carbonated drinks Ory ice, which used asa refrigerant. 3. asa refrigerant because it sublimes (transforms directly from the solid state to the gaseous state) without leaving any residue 4. in baking (it is released by baking powder so that the batter becomes light and fluffy as it bakes) 5. by plants to produce oxygen through photosynthesis. Sub-topic $ Carbon and carbonates 133,Manufacture of lime from limestone Limestone, chalk and marble are all forms of calcium carbonate. These were formed by different methods, but they all started off as shells of sea animals that lived billions of years ago. [oping A C0, and ar out < —+ fue! ancd air in —> cool air iri Figure 28 A lime kiln produces quicklime. B marble, as found in nature. Quicklime is manufactured from limestone in a lime kiln. The by-product is carbom dioxide. Calcium carbonate (limestone) + calcium oxide (quicklime) + carbon dioxide CaCO, (5) = CaO (5) + €O,(g) ‘The arzows in the equation show that the reaction is reversible. So, to increase the amount of lime produced, the carbon dioxide must be removed constantly to avoid reacting back to calcium carbonate, ‘When calcium oxide is dissolved in water, calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) ,, also called slaked lime) is produced: CaO (s) + H,O @) + Ca(OH), (aq) Uses. of quicklime and slaked lime + Both are used in the treatment of acidic soils to help crops grow. © Quicklime is used as a drying agent in the manufacture of ammonia. + Quicklime is essential in the production of steel from iron ore. * Slaked lime is used to neutralize acids in industrial liquid wastes. Uses of limestone Limestone is used: * to make glass (it is heated with sand and sodium carbonate) * to make cement * in the extraction of iron from iron ore in a blast furnace. 134 topic 7 Non-metalsrm The greenhouse effect Carbon dioxide, water vapour and other gases in the atmosphere allow UV radiation from the sun to penetrate and warm the earth. As the earth heats up, it gives out infrared radiation which is absorbed by the greenhouse gases. The trapped infrared radiation (in the form of heat) acts as a shield around the earth and keeps the earth warm. This phenomenon called the greenhouse effect. This effect contributes to climate change. If the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere increases, the effect is increased so that the earth becomes even warmer. Human activities, such as buming fossil fuels and cutting down trees for fuel or farmland, have contributed to the increase of carbon dioxide levels, in particular. ° Some of the negative effects of climate change are: © Melting of the ice caps results in loss of habitat near the poles. # Rising seas flood low-lying cities and islands. * Chiesa tens se ro some areas and flooding in others. © Warmer, wetter weather encourages the es ere ee — spread of diseases such as malaria. effect and lead to global © Warmer seas mean a loss of plankton, the warming. main diet of whales and other aquatic life. [ Activity9 | Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and limestone Answer the following questions in pairs: 1. Carbon dioxide is formed from carbon monoxide. a) State two: i) physical properties of carbon dioxide ii) chemical properties of carbon dioxide iif) uses of carbon dioxide gas. b) Write down a balanced reaction that shows the laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide using calcium carbonate and dilute HCL. ©) Describe the test for carbon dioxide gas. Use a chemical equation in your answer. 2. Name the reactants and products that are formed when quicklime is produced, in alime kiln, 3. State two industrial uses of limestone. 4. Climate change is often linked to global warming. a) Describe the greenhouse effect. b) Explain how the greenhouse effect contributes to global warming. ©) Describe one negative impact of climate change on either humans or the environment. Sub-topic § Carbon and carbonates 135