Urban planning

Migration, which dates back to the period when the first examples of life appeared on earth, could be reviewed in a broad framework that expresses a special or general mobility of living creatures to pursue a target or following compulsoriness's. The migration of some living creatures is considered to be distinctly older than the history of humanity itself. However, the different dynamics which have been shaped in the migration process and the results of these dynamics manifest themselves in multifaceted manner specifically and solely in human mobility. These results accordingly carry migration to a different dimension throughout the world presently with the effect of globalization. During the period of which city-states countries developed to today's modern nation-states countries, the phenomenon of migration never ceased to exist by transitioning into different forms and shapes and has led to critical milestones in certain historical periods. The phenomenon of migration, which ought not be considered as a change in the place of residence solely, includes many dimensions such as socio-economic and socio-cultural changes. It has started to directly impact the lives of people who had left their homeland due to the abstract concept of "border" oppression, violence, war and other concerns especially with the strict border policies which have gotten a progressively tougher manner with the reshape of the nation-state. While this situation initiates a new process in terms of legal and daily life practice for the "migrants" who have moved to another country of which they do not have its nationality, it also affects the institutional capacity of the receiving society and country in various ways. The war in Syria, which started in 2011, as of a result of internal conflicts, is considered to be one of the biggest humanitarian crises in the globe in recent years causing millions of people to leave their homes and countries and migrate. As a result of this migration which originated from Syria, Turkey became a host country to the highest number of immigrants and refugees in the world in the last few years due to its geographical location and the open-door policy the country had adopted. Turkey's migration policy has been reshaped and different actors were involved in this process with this mass migration which acquires an international and compulsory attribute. The definition of "guest" which has no equivalent in the international law framework and indicates temporariness, was used to refer to the people who came with the immigration originating from Syria up until 2013. However, as a result of the prolonged war and conflicts in Syria, the increase in the population and the verity of needs, various legal and administrative regulations have been made in migration management, accompanied by measures taken on a local, national and international levels. Due to legal and administrative regulations in Turkey, Syrians are not defined as "refugees" but are defined as foreigners under temporary protection status in the official discourse. However, although Syrians are expressed in this way in the discourse of the past, they will be expressed as refugees in this study. Although the central government is the primary responsible body in the development of migration policies and process management in Turkey, it is observed upon the experience in the last 11 years that different actors have been involved in the process at local level. International organizations, local, national and international non-governmental organizations, municipalities, solidarity networks, self-organizations, Muhtar offices, universities and many other structures are seen as operating actors outside the central government in cities. The presence of actors working in the migration field can be vitally important considering the majority of refugees in Turkey live as urban refugees in urban areas and try to be included in the urban life. "Refugees", who have become the new actors of the city, live under difficult conditions and experience difficulties in accessing urban rights and services for various reasons. It is immensely difficult to ensure social cohesion and integration of refugees who are facing social exclusion in areas such as labor market, education, health, urban services participation and social relations in addition to poverty. Therefore, the inclusive policies and practices of the actors working in the field of migration, who are in one-to-one contact with migrants and refugees locally, are highly related to the social cohesion of refugees.

Recent studies show that human being's impacts on Earth's systems are increasing (Rockström et al., 2009). According to WWF statistical report on ecological footprint, since 1961, human beings' demand on natural resources has increased by approximately 140%. The earth's bio-productive landscape is insufficient to support competing demands of human beings (WWF et al., 2014) and development such as consumption patterns, urbanization, unqualified living areas, and population increases (Karr, 1999). It is clear that these estimations suggest the requirement of systematic and sustainable assessments of demand on the Earth's limited biosphere. On the other hand, the functioning of natural landscapes, which are supporting well-being of human needs, are crucial for the sustainability of life on earth. In this context, especially fresh water resources have an important role on social and ecological systems. Besides the drinking water supply, fresh water sources support industrial production processes and the irrigation of agricultural lands (in the social framework). Additionally, fresh water sources keep alive aquatic and terrestrial dynamics such as being habitat for numerous fauna and flora species (Sharip, 2010). Unfortunately, the result of unsustainable usage and pollution of fresh water systems have caused water scarcity on Earth (UNEP, 2006). All these negative influences on aquatic ecosystems bring out the importance of studies on the components of social and ecological systems. At the end of the 20th century, the "ecological resilience" concept emerged through C. S. Holling in 1973, "ecosystem services" was derived from Walter E. Westman's natural capital studies in 1981, the "political ecology" term was evaluated by Blaikie and Brookfield in 1987, and "intervention ecology" was practically studied by Hobbs in 1996. As a result of increasing importance of conservation, sustainability and management of fresh water systems, this study puts under lenses the conceptual backgrounds and interactions of socio-ecological systems and ecological resilience in water basins. Consequently, Turkey's second biggest fresh water basin, Eğirdir Lake was chosen as a case study, and Eğirdir Lake Basin Conservation Plan was evaluated within the scope of socio-ecological systems and under the lenses of ecological resilience. As a result, it will be understood that, whether Eğirdir Lake Basin Conservation Plan, an influential instrument to assess the relationship between socio-ecological systems and the ecological resilience.

The practice of socio-cultural, social exclusion and residential segregation brings a heterogeneous identity to cities in the multidimensional and complex structure of urban culture. This heterogeneous appearance of the cities, which contains ethnic, religious
convergence, cultural and denominational uniformities, are surrounded by homogeneous network of relationships, which also manifest themselves in the form of spatial relationships in urban areas called ghettos.

Until the 1980s, the concept of ghetto was rather an outcome of ethnic, religious, denominational, and cultural discrimination; however, with the 1980s, ghetto term has also been used for parts of the cities, which have deprived infrastructures, lack of social facilities and socio-economically poor groups. With the 2000s, closed-societies/ gated communities, which are spatial parts of consumer culture, have come to be known as
modern or rich ghettos. After 2010 along with the wars especially in Middle East, ghettos who emigrated to secure their lives in other lands caught the attention.

Hence, after the 1980s ghetto with the using outside of its real meaning has begun to lose its characteristic to be an instrument of ethnic, religious, denominational or cultural discrimination and become to be a classificatory exclusionary instrument.

Within the scope of this study, the process of ghettoization has been selected from Turkey. The way in which the concept will be argued in five case studies and three different periods: 1940-1960 (Jewish Ghetto of Balat); 1960-1980 (Roman Ghetto of Sulukule and Denominational Ghetto of Gazi Neighborhood); and post-1980 (‘Gated Communities of Mavişehir Neighborhood and Post-War Ghetto of Önder Neighborhood) (see in Appendix.1). Variety of examples on ghettos through Turkey will be evaluated on the keywords, which form the basis of the ghetto term, and these cases carry the ghetto characteristic or not will be researched.

2019 yılı Aralık ayında Çin’de başlayan ve tüm dünyaya yayılmasıyla Mart ayında Dünya Sağlık Örgütü tarafından pandemi olarak ilan edilen Covid-19 pek çok alanda olduğu gibi kent yaşamını da etkilemiş ve bu nedenle şehirciliğin ilgi alanı haline gelmiştir. Salgınla beraber ihtiyaçları karşılamada kentsel sistemlerin yetersiz kalması, kamusal alan kullanımının kısıtlanması, sosyal faaliyetlerin minimuma inmesi ve bunlara yönelik yeni oluşan pratikler şehir planlama ve kentsel tasarım gibi ilgili disiplinlerin günümüzde ve gelecekte alternatif çözümler üzerinde düşünmesini gerektirmektedir. Bu çalışma kentin en küçük ve en temel birimi olan mahallenin küresel ölçekte yaşanan Covid-19 gibi çevre problemlerine çözüm getirebileceği düşüncesini esas almaktadır. Bu bağlamda sosyal dayanıklı mahalle olgusu toplum sağlığı kapsamında değerlendirilmiştir. Yaşadığımız salgın sürecinin mahalleleri nasıl etkilediği, gelecekte benzeri olası durumlara karşı mahalleleri neye hazırlamamız gerektiği ve mahalleleri nasıl daha dayanıklı hale getirebileceğimiz ise yanıtı aranan sorulardır.

Mahalle kavramı ortaya çıkışından bu yana farklı süreçlerden geçmiş ve farklı anlamlar kazanmıştır. Başlangıçta benzer özellikler gösteren bireylerin birlikte yaşamlarını sürdürdükleri, sosyal ilişkilerin güçlü olduğu, kendine yeten ve dışa kapalı bir yerleşim yeri olarak ifade edilen mahalle; zaman içerisinde hem kentleşme süreçleri hem de kavramın sosyal bilimler, şehir planlama ve kentsel tasarım gibi farklı disiplinlerin ilgi alanına girmesiyle derinlik kazanmıştır. Bu durum mahallenin anlaşılmasını güçleştirmiş, genel bir mahalle kabulünden bahsetmeyi olanaksız hale getirmiş, aynı zamanda mahalleyi anlamaya ve korumaya yönelik gerekliliği doğurmuştur. Bu kapsamda bu çalışmada mahalle kavramı sosyal dayanıklılık bağlamında ele alınmıştır. Sosyal dayanıklılık kavramını mahalleye adapte etme gereksinimi, bu uğraşın zaman içerisinde değişen ve dinamik olan süreçlere sosyal ve çevresel olarak adapte olabilen, kültürlerini, kimliklerini koruyan mekânlar üreterek, mahallenin ve mahalle kültürünün sürdürülebilirliğine katkı sağlayabileceği düşüncesidir. Bu kapsamda çalışmada yeni bir kavram arayışı olarak sosyal dayanıklı mahalle kavramı üzerinde durulmuş ve sosyal dayanıklı olmaya yönelik belirlenen parametreler alan çalışması olarak seçilen Kurtuluş- Feriköy üzerinden değerlendirilmiştir.