Tra la leggenda nera di una “eta delle tenebre” (dove ci sono fame, carestie, pestilenze, disordi... more Tra la leggenda nera di una “eta delle tenebre” (dove ci sono fame, carestie, pestilenze, disordine politico, soperchierie di latifondisti, superstizioni di popolo, corruzione del clero ecc.) e la leggenda dorata di una “belle epoque” medievale (dove ci sono tornei, vita di corte, fate, cavalieri fedeli a principi magnanimi ecc.), c’e la realta quotidiana. La realta di un mondo di monaci, di chierici, di guerrieri, di contadini, di mercanti, e di “straccioni”: di un laicato urbano di bassa estrazione e condizione sociale. I protagonisti erano quasi tutti servi e serve, panettieri, calzolai, fruttivendoli, fabbri, tintori, conciatori di pelli, lanaiuoli, e specialmente tessitori e tessitrici nelle cui officine maturavano «empi deliramenti contro il decoro ecclesiastico», sospetti e tradimenti contro i signori e «dolose macchinazioni contro la potesta ordinata da Dio», (si) lamentava il monaco Sigeberto di Gembloux, attorno al 1074-75, quando la “lotta delle investiture” e gli incitam...
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is an irreversibly progressive diffuse lung disease character... more Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is an irreversibly progressive diffuse lung disease characterised by a usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP) pattern. IPF presents with an ominous prognosis with a median survival of around 5 years [1]. The development of an acute exacerbation, histologically diffuse alveolar damage (DAD) upon UIP, represents the most devastating of its complications and leads to death in the majority of patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) [2–4]. Viral infections in the setting of an altered host lung microbiome are likely important triggers of acute exacerbations of IPF and subsequent acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) [4, 5]. During the lockdown, IPF patients experienced lower than expected COVID-19, suggesting that simple measures for the winter months, such as face masking, clean hands, physical distancing could be adopted as promising advances in non-pharmacological therapy https://bit.ly/2ISi2EV
Nella crisi degli antichi ordinamenti politici ed ecclesiastici, che, non da ultimo, rappresentav... more Nella crisi degli antichi ordinamenti politici ed ecclesiastici, che, non da ultimo, rappresentava una crisi di legittimazione delle autorita tradizionali ("Regnum" e "Sacerdotium", in lotta per la supremazia universale), una crisi profonda e drammatica per la coscienza medievale destinata a sbocciare nella trasmutazione della tavola dei valori umani, a partire dall’XI secolo gruppi di “dissidenza” religiosa, ostili alle strutture istituzionali della Chiesa e tese a riproporre i motivi della purezza e della "paupertas" evangelica del Cristianesimo primitivo, diffondono, ed in parte provano ad imporre in forme militanti, nuovi modelli di vita in comune degli e fra gli uomini (da questo punto di vista, i disordini dei patareni/patarini in Lombardia, e generalmente nell’Italia del "Regnum", l’Italia centro-settentrionale, contrassegnano una fase rivoluzionaria, in cui non sono semplicemente gli strati inferiori che insorgono contro i detentori de...
The present Doctoral Thesis, written in Italian language, has the following structure:
After the ... more The present Doctoral Thesis, written in Italian language, has the following structure: After the introduction, the author analyses the rich chapter of Frederic II in the contemporary historiography. Then, she develops the meaning of “sovereignty” in the medieval political thinking followed in another chapter by the evolution of the community institutions in Italy of the medieval times, more precisely the transition of the time of the power of the consuls of the cities to the power of the podestà. In the fourth chapter she follows the development of the meaning of the concept of “nation” as a political project of Frederic II and then she examines two “laws”, the most important ones that crystallize its policy confronting the autonomy of the Italian cities. The doctoral thesis is then completed with two more chapters where both the role of the Pope and the retrogression face to face the different powers of the cities are studied. The Doctoral Thesis includes a Chronology of the most important dates of that time placed at the beginning of the main text, a table with all the references and the historical sources used as well as an appendix (supplement) consisting of a thoughtful consideration of the meaning of the Italian cities of mediaeval times. The author develops the policy of the above mentioned Emperor in regard to the Lombardic cities. It is of note, that not only Frederic II had a difficult relationship with the Italian, and more specifically the Lombardic cities which were considered a constant problem for all the German Emperors. Frederic II, uncontestably a charming 2 personage of the Medieval World from any aspect, is of great interest himself for his relationship with the Italian cities, due to the fact that based on his relationship with the jurists of that Era he introduces in his dialogue the roman concept of legibus solutus και lex animata in terris which determine the relationship of the local autonomies with the sovereigns. If we consider that both these concepts became operational only after the 16th century, then we can realize how original and “ahead of time” its use by Frederic II was at the 13th century. The true history of the relationship of the two parts however was much different, since beside the invocation of the Roman Law, the cities could still block the application of the decisions and the will of the Emperor and continue to cut that way in two his territory of dominance (that one partly theoretic as well). The Emperor had already bad memories from the Italian cities since at the first years of his royalty the cities had created many difficulties to his travel to Germany to be crowned Emperor (at that time he was only Rex). Later on they would further inhibit his allied troops to proceed beyond Trento. However, later on with the support of the Pope for a crusade and the confrontation of the Cathars, an agreement was achieved for a Diet at the city of Cremona (a friendly city to the Emperor) with the representatives of the cities but finally they again managed very quickly to obviate the obligation to accept the terms of the Emperor. The Diet never took place. The Emperor will then react by applying pressure to the cities but no agreement with or recapitulation of the cities will ever occur beside the fact that some of them where on the side of the Emperor. These problematic relationships will finally lead to rupture and war, that the Emperor will initially win. The victory however was not clear and did not last for long since later on he will be defeated in front of the city of Milan. Beside the imperial and “roman” dreams, the strong reality of the local autonomies at the medieval times will 3 prevail without Frederic II being able to finally subjugate the Italian cities. The time of the major sovereignties was not there yet. The author describes with clarity the complexity of the disagreements and the conflicts between the different powers, “civil”, imperial, ecclesiastical, confronting all the relative legal, theological and political concepts without ever losing contact with “real history”, that is the true balance of power in the field reclaiming that way adequately the history of events. This study constitutes a significant contribution to the problematic of the history of the Italian cities and the presence of the Emperor in Italy, shedding light on the real problem of the politics of the medieval times. Different powers that finally neutralize and mutually cancel each other, decisive role of the papal power which at the 13th century is still at its peak without having lost his ethical prestige. The present Doctoral Thesis suggests an original point of view concerning that period of time and the different policies of both parts, the imperial one and the “communal” one, substantially contributing to the understanding and the knowledge of that era. Prof. M Vellas, Prof. N Karapidakis, Prof. D Tsougarakis
Με την αντίληψη του Φρειδερίκου του Β΄(1194-1250) περί κυριαρχίας, που συνοψίζεται στις φράσεις τ... more Με την αντίληψη του Φρειδερίκου του Β΄(1194-1250) περί κυριαρχίας, που συνοψίζεται στις φράσεις του Ρωμαϊκού Δικαίου ότι ο ηγεμόνας είναι legibus solutus (ελεύθερος από την τήρηση των νόμων) και lex animata in terris (ότι ο ηγεμόνας είναι ο απεσταλμένος από τον Θεό στους ανθρώπους, ‘έμψυχος νόμος’, την ιδέα δηλαδή της αμεσότητας και της κοσμικής εξουσίας από τον Θεό), και επομένως ασκεί στην πράξη απόλυτη εξουσία, συνδέονται και η αδιάλλακτη στάση του απέναντι σε κάθε αντίσταση στα αυτοκρατορικά σχέδια, και η συνέπεια των πράξεών του που εκφράστηκε τόσο στο νομοθετικό του έργο Liber Augustalis (Βιβλίο του Αυγούστου), όσο και στην ατυχή πολιτική του απέναντι στις πόλεις της Βόρειας Ιταλίας (regnum Italicum ή Italie) ιδίως από το 1235 και μετά.
Μάγισσα μην αφήσεις να ζήσει (Έξοδος 22, 17) 2 Κατά την πρώτη περίοδο στην ιστορία της σύγχρονης ... more Μάγισσα μην αφήσεις να ζήσει (Έξοδος 22, 17) 2 Κατά την πρώτη περίοδο στην ιστορία της σύγχρονης Ευρώπης (1450 -1650) χιλιάδες άνθρωποι 3 , κυρίως γυναίκες, καταδικάστηκαν σε θάνατο γιατί θεωρήθηκαν "μάγισσες" 4 : "Για μένα δεν υπάρχουν αμφιβολίες, αφού αρκεί μια γρήγορη ματιά στους γύρω μας για να πειστούμε ότι η χώρα (ενν. η Γαλλία) έχει μολυνθεί από αυτά τα ολέθρια χαμερπή όντα. Η Γερμανία άλλο δεν κάνει από το να υψώνει πυρές, η Ελβετία υποχρεούται να κάνει το ίδιο, ερημώνοντας με αυτό τον τρόπο τα χωριά της, η Λορένη έχει να επιδείξει στον επισκέπτη χιλιάδες πασσάλους στους οποίους έδεσαν τις μάγισσες. Όσο για μας, που δεν εξαιρούμαστε περισσότερο από τους άλλους από αυτή τη συμφορά, απαριθμούμε πολλές εκτελέσεις σε όλη τη χώρα. Αν μιλήσουμε τώρα για τους γείτονές μας, η Σαβοϊα δεν έχει ακόμα απαλλαχθεί, δεδομένου ότι μας στέλνει καθημερινά αμέτρητες περιπτώσεις δαιμονισμένων οι οποίοι, δυστυχισμένοι, κατόπιν ανακρίσεως, μας αφηγούνται ότι οι διάβολοι μπήκαν στα σώματά τους μέσω των μαγισσών… Όχι, όχι, οι μάγισσες εξαπλώνονται παντού, κατά χιλιάδες, πολλαπλασιάζονται πάνω στη γη όπως οι κάμπιες στους κήπους μας… Θέλω να ξέρουν ότι αν τα αποτελέσματα ήταν αντίστοιχα με τις προσδοκίες μου, η γη θα ελευθερωνόταν γρήγορα, γιατί θα ήθελα να ενωθούν όλες μαζί σε ένα σώμα έτσι ώστε να μπορέσουμε να τις κάψουμε σε μία και μοναδική πυρά" 5 . Η άρχουσα τάξη των μορφωμένων πολιτών 6 θεωρούσε τη μαγεία crimen 7 (έγκλημα) συνδεδεμένο με το γυναικείο φύλο 8 . Το στερεότυπο της ευρωπαίας μάγισσας = θηλυκή μάγισσα, γυναίκα -μάγισσα αποδεικνύεται 9 με "στατιστική" δραματικότητα από τον αριθμό των ατόμων που δικάστηκαν (για μαγεία) 10 : το ποσοστό των γυναικών ξεπερνά το 75 τοις εκατό σε πολλές περιοχές της Ευρώπης ενώ σε μέρη όπως η κομητεία του Έσεξ στην Αγγλία, το επισκοπάτο της Βασιλείας στην Ελβετία και η επαρχία του Ναμούρ -σημερινό Βέλγιο -το ποσοστό των γυναικών ξεπερνά το 90 τοις εκατό 11 .
La credenza nella stregoneria è una interpretazione, fatta propria da ogni società attraverso opi... more La credenza nella stregoneria è una interpretazione, fatta propria da ogni società attraverso opinioni, comportamenti, racconti, che attribuisce l’evento negativo (carestie, malattie, pestilenze, disordini, guerre, conflitti politici e sociali, calamità naturali, mutamenti religiosi, morte) all’azione nociva di individui reali (o essere mitici) dotati di poteri extraordinari, arcani, prodigiosi, innati oppure acquisiti. La credenza nella presenza concreta e nella condotta dannosa di individui di questo genere determina in ogni cultura la necessità di identificare tali soggetti, per osteggiarli e vanificarne l’azione. Tuttavia lo studioso della stregoneria europea dell’età moderna incontra una problematica ulteriore, trovandosi costretto ad introdurre un elemento aggiuntivo: la formulazione teorica elaborata tra XIV e XVIII secolo in Europa dalla cultura dominante ecclesiastica e laica in relazione all’origine di questi poteri magici, un’origine diabolica, un patto con il Diavolo.
La Riforma, la Controriforma, l’Inquisizione nel disciplinare la vita morale e religiosa durante ... more La Riforma, la Controriforma, l’Inquisizione nel disciplinare la vita morale e religiosa durante il Medioevo e all’inizio dell’Età moderna, l’uso della tortura nel processo inquisitorio, le guerre di religione, lo zelo religioso del clero, la crisi dell’agricoltura, le carestie, la nascita dello Stato moderno, lo sviluppo del capitalismo, la diffusione dell’uso di droghe, i mutamenti nel pensiero medico, i conflitti sociali e culturali, i tentativi di cancellare gli ultimi residui del paganesimo, l’opposizione al controllo delle nascite, con conseguente appropriazione da parte dell’elemento maschile di un rigido controllo sul potere riproduttivo femminile e sulla gestione della sua sessualità, il disprezzo per le donne, crearono un contesto che non solo rese possibile ma che favorì il verificarsi di quel fenomeno noto come “caccia alle streghe”, in Europa nei secoli XV-XVI-XVII (1450-1650).
Tra la leggenda nera di una “eta delle tenebre” (dove ci sono fame, carestie, pestilenze, disordi... more Tra la leggenda nera di una “eta delle tenebre” (dove ci sono fame, carestie, pestilenze, disordine politico, soperchierie di latifondisti, superstizioni di popolo, corruzione del clero ecc.) e la leggenda dorata di una “belle epoque” medievale (dove ci sono tornei, vita di corte, fate, cavalieri fedeli a principi magnanimi ecc.), c’e la realta quotidiana. La realta di un mondo di monaci, di chierici, di guerrieri, di contadini, di mercanti, e di “straccioni”: di un laicato urbano di bassa estrazione e condizione sociale. I protagonisti erano quasi tutti servi e serve, panettieri, calzolai, fruttivendoli, fabbri, tintori, conciatori di pelli, lanaiuoli, e specialmente tessitori e tessitrici nelle cui officine maturavano «empi deliramenti contro il decoro ecclesiastico», sospetti e tradimenti contro i signori e «dolose macchinazioni contro la potesta ordinata da Dio», (si) lamentava il monaco Sigeberto di Gembloux, attorno al 1074-75, quando la “lotta delle investiture” e gli incitam...
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is an irreversibly progressive diffuse lung disease character... more Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is an irreversibly progressive diffuse lung disease characterised by a usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP) pattern. IPF presents with an ominous prognosis with a median survival of around 5 years [1]. The development of an acute exacerbation, histologically diffuse alveolar damage (DAD) upon UIP, represents the most devastating of its complications and leads to death in the majority of patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) [2–4]. Viral infections in the setting of an altered host lung microbiome are likely important triggers of acute exacerbations of IPF and subsequent acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) [4, 5]. During the lockdown, IPF patients experienced lower than expected COVID-19, suggesting that simple measures for the winter months, such as face masking, clean hands, physical distancing could be adopted as promising advances in non-pharmacological therapy https://bit.ly/2ISi2EV
Nella crisi degli antichi ordinamenti politici ed ecclesiastici, che, non da ultimo, rappresentav... more Nella crisi degli antichi ordinamenti politici ed ecclesiastici, che, non da ultimo, rappresentava una crisi di legittimazione delle autorita tradizionali ("Regnum" e "Sacerdotium", in lotta per la supremazia universale), una crisi profonda e drammatica per la coscienza medievale destinata a sbocciare nella trasmutazione della tavola dei valori umani, a partire dall’XI secolo gruppi di “dissidenza” religiosa, ostili alle strutture istituzionali della Chiesa e tese a riproporre i motivi della purezza e della "paupertas" evangelica del Cristianesimo primitivo, diffondono, ed in parte provano ad imporre in forme militanti, nuovi modelli di vita in comune degli e fra gli uomini (da questo punto di vista, i disordini dei patareni/patarini in Lombardia, e generalmente nell’Italia del "Regnum", l’Italia centro-settentrionale, contrassegnano una fase rivoluzionaria, in cui non sono semplicemente gli strati inferiori che insorgono contro i detentori de...
The present Doctoral Thesis, written in Italian language, has the following structure:
After the ... more The present Doctoral Thesis, written in Italian language, has the following structure: After the introduction, the author analyses the rich chapter of Frederic II in the contemporary historiography. Then, she develops the meaning of “sovereignty” in the medieval political thinking followed in another chapter by the evolution of the community institutions in Italy of the medieval times, more precisely the transition of the time of the power of the consuls of the cities to the power of the podestà. In the fourth chapter she follows the development of the meaning of the concept of “nation” as a political project of Frederic II and then she examines two “laws”, the most important ones that crystallize its policy confronting the autonomy of the Italian cities. The doctoral thesis is then completed with two more chapters where both the role of the Pope and the retrogression face to face the different powers of the cities are studied. The Doctoral Thesis includes a Chronology of the most important dates of that time placed at the beginning of the main text, a table with all the references and the historical sources used as well as an appendix (supplement) consisting of a thoughtful consideration of the meaning of the Italian cities of mediaeval times. The author develops the policy of the above mentioned Emperor in regard to the Lombardic cities. It is of note, that not only Frederic II had a difficult relationship with the Italian, and more specifically the Lombardic cities which were considered a constant problem for all the German Emperors. Frederic II, uncontestably a charming 2 personage of the Medieval World from any aspect, is of great interest himself for his relationship with the Italian cities, due to the fact that based on his relationship with the jurists of that Era he introduces in his dialogue the roman concept of legibus solutus και lex animata in terris which determine the relationship of the local autonomies with the sovereigns. If we consider that both these concepts became operational only after the 16th century, then we can realize how original and “ahead of time” its use by Frederic II was at the 13th century. The true history of the relationship of the two parts however was much different, since beside the invocation of the Roman Law, the cities could still block the application of the decisions and the will of the Emperor and continue to cut that way in two his territory of dominance (that one partly theoretic as well). The Emperor had already bad memories from the Italian cities since at the first years of his royalty the cities had created many difficulties to his travel to Germany to be crowned Emperor (at that time he was only Rex). Later on they would further inhibit his allied troops to proceed beyond Trento. However, later on with the support of the Pope for a crusade and the confrontation of the Cathars, an agreement was achieved for a Diet at the city of Cremona (a friendly city to the Emperor) with the representatives of the cities but finally they again managed very quickly to obviate the obligation to accept the terms of the Emperor. The Diet never took place. The Emperor will then react by applying pressure to the cities but no agreement with or recapitulation of the cities will ever occur beside the fact that some of them where on the side of the Emperor. These problematic relationships will finally lead to rupture and war, that the Emperor will initially win. The victory however was not clear and did not last for long since later on he will be defeated in front of the city of Milan. Beside the imperial and “roman” dreams, the strong reality of the local autonomies at the medieval times will 3 prevail without Frederic II being able to finally subjugate the Italian cities. The time of the major sovereignties was not there yet. The author describes with clarity the complexity of the disagreements and the conflicts between the different powers, “civil”, imperial, ecclesiastical, confronting all the relative legal, theological and political concepts without ever losing contact with “real history”, that is the true balance of power in the field reclaiming that way adequately the history of events. This study constitutes a significant contribution to the problematic of the history of the Italian cities and the presence of the Emperor in Italy, shedding light on the real problem of the politics of the medieval times. Different powers that finally neutralize and mutually cancel each other, decisive role of the papal power which at the 13th century is still at its peak without having lost his ethical prestige. The present Doctoral Thesis suggests an original point of view concerning that period of time and the different policies of both parts, the imperial one and the “communal” one, substantially contributing to the understanding and the knowledge of that era. Prof. M Vellas, Prof. N Karapidakis, Prof. D Tsougarakis
Με την αντίληψη του Φρειδερίκου του Β΄(1194-1250) περί κυριαρχίας, που συνοψίζεται στις φράσεις τ... more Με την αντίληψη του Φρειδερίκου του Β΄(1194-1250) περί κυριαρχίας, που συνοψίζεται στις φράσεις του Ρωμαϊκού Δικαίου ότι ο ηγεμόνας είναι legibus solutus (ελεύθερος από την τήρηση των νόμων) και lex animata in terris (ότι ο ηγεμόνας είναι ο απεσταλμένος από τον Θεό στους ανθρώπους, ‘έμψυχος νόμος’, την ιδέα δηλαδή της αμεσότητας και της κοσμικής εξουσίας από τον Θεό), και επομένως ασκεί στην πράξη απόλυτη εξουσία, συνδέονται και η αδιάλλακτη στάση του απέναντι σε κάθε αντίσταση στα αυτοκρατορικά σχέδια, και η συνέπεια των πράξεών του που εκφράστηκε τόσο στο νομοθετικό του έργο Liber Augustalis (Βιβλίο του Αυγούστου), όσο και στην ατυχή πολιτική του απέναντι στις πόλεις της Βόρειας Ιταλίας (regnum Italicum ή Italie) ιδίως από το 1235 και μετά.
Μάγισσα μην αφήσεις να ζήσει (Έξοδος 22, 17) 2 Κατά την πρώτη περίοδο στην ιστορία της σύγχρονης ... more Μάγισσα μην αφήσεις να ζήσει (Έξοδος 22, 17) 2 Κατά την πρώτη περίοδο στην ιστορία της σύγχρονης Ευρώπης (1450 -1650) χιλιάδες άνθρωποι 3 , κυρίως γυναίκες, καταδικάστηκαν σε θάνατο γιατί θεωρήθηκαν "μάγισσες" 4 : "Για μένα δεν υπάρχουν αμφιβολίες, αφού αρκεί μια γρήγορη ματιά στους γύρω μας για να πειστούμε ότι η χώρα (ενν. η Γαλλία) έχει μολυνθεί από αυτά τα ολέθρια χαμερπή όντα. Η Γερμανία άλλο δεν κάνει από το να υψώνει πυρές, η Ελβετία υποχρεούται να κάνει το ίδιο, ερημώνοντας με αυτό τον τρόπο τα χωριά της, η Λορένη έχει να επιδείξει στον επισκέπτη χιλιάδες πασσάλους στους οποίους έδεσαν τις μάγισσες. Όσο για μας, που δεν εξαιρούμαστε περισσότερο από τους άλλους από αυτή τη συμφορά, απαριθμούμε πολλές εκτελέσεις σε όλη τη χώρα. Αν μιλήσουμε τώρα για τους γείτονές μας, η Σαβοϊα δεν έχει ακόμα απαλλαχθεί, δεδομένου ότι μας στέλνει καθημερινά αμέτρητες περιπτώσεις δαιμονισμένων οι οποίοι, δυστυχισμένοι, κατόπιν ανακρίσεως, μας αφηγούνται ότι οι διάβολοι μπήκαν στα σώματά τους μέσω των μαγισσών… Όχι, όχι, οι μάγισσες εξαπλώνονται παντού, κατά χιλιάδες, πολλαπλασιάζονται πάνω στη γη όπως οι κάμπιες στους κήπους μας… Θέλω να ξέρουν ότι αν τα αποτελέσματα ήταν αντίστοιχα με τις προσδοκίες μου, η γη θα ελευθερωνόταν γρήγορα, γιατί θα ήθελα να ενωθούν όλες μαζί σε ένα σώμα έτσι ώστε να μπορέσουμε να τις κάψουμε σε μία και μοναδική πυρά" 5 . Η άρχουσα τάξη των μορφωμένων πολιτών 6 θεωρούσε τη μαγεία crimen 7 (έγκλημα) συνδεδεμένο με το γυναικείο φύλο 8 . Το στερεότυπο της ευρωπαίας μάγισσας = θηλυκή μάγισσα, γυναίκα -μάγισσα αποδεικνύεται 9 με "στατιστική" δραματικότητα από τον αριθμό των ατόμων που δικάστηκαν (για μαγεία) 10 : το ποσοστό των γυναικών ξεπερνά το 75 τοις εκατό σε πολλές περιοχές της Ευρώπης ενώ σε μέρη όπως η κομητεία του Έσεξ στην Αγγλία, το επισκοπάτο της Βασιλείας στην Ελβετία και η επαρχία του Ναμούρ -σημερινό Βέλγιο -το ποσοστό των γυναικών ξεπερνά το 90 τοις εκατό 11 .
La credenza nella stregoneria è una interpretazione, fatta propria da ogni società attraverso opi... more La credenza nella stregoneria è una interpretazione, fatta propria da ogni società attraverso opinioni, comportamenti, racconti, che attribuisce l’evento negativo (carestie, malattie, pestilenze, disordini, guerre, conflitti politici e sociali, calamità naturali, mutamenti religiosi, morte) all’azione nociva di individui reali (o essere mitici) dotati di poteri extraordinari, arcani, prodigiosi, innati oppure acquisiti. La credenza nella presenza concreta e nella condotta dannosa di individui di questo genere determina in ogni cultura la necessità di identificare tali soggetti, per osteggiarli e vanificarne l’azione. Tuttavia lo studioso della stregoneria europea dell’età moderna incontra una problematica ulteriore, trovandosi costretto ad introdurre un elemento aggiuntivo: la formulazione teorica elaborata tra XIV e XVIII secolo in Europa dalla cultura dominante ecclesiastica e laica in relazione all’origine di questi poteri magici, un’origine diabolica, un patto con il Diavolo.
La Riforma, la Controriforma, l’Inquisizione nel disciplinare la vita morale e religiosa durante ... more La Riforma, la Controriforma, l’Inquisizione nel disciplinare la vita morale e religiosa durante il Medioevo e all’inizio dell’Età moderna, l’uso della tortura nel processo inquisitorio, le guerre di religione, lo zelo religioso del clero, la crisi dell’agricoltura, le carestie, la nascita dello Stato moderno, lo sviluppo del capitalismo, la diffusione dell’uso di droghe, i mutamenti nel pensiero medico, i conflitti sociali e culturali, i tentativi di cancellare gli ultimi residui del paganesimo, l’opposizione al controllo delle nascite, con conseguente appropriazione da parte dell’elemento maschile di un rigido controllo sul potere riproduttivo femminile e sulla gestione della sua sessualità, il disprezzo per le donne, crearono un contesto che non solo rese possibile ma che favorì il verificarsi di quel fenomeno noto come “caccia alle streghe”, in Europa nei secoli XV-XVI-XVII (1450-1650).
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Papers by Rita Bellelli
After the introduction, the author analyses the rich chapter of Frederic II in the contemporary historiography. Then, she develops the meaning of “sovereignty” in the medieval political thinking followed in another chapter by the evolution of the community institutions in Italy of the medieval times, more precisely the transition of the time of the power of the consuls of the cities to the power of the podestà.
In the fourth chapter she follows the development of the meaning of the concept of “nation” as a political project of Frederic II and then she examines two “laws”, the most important ones that crystallize its policy confronting the autonomy of the Italian cities. The doctoral thesis is then completed with two more chapters where both the role of the Pope and the retrogression face to face the different powers of the cities are studied.
The Doctoral Thesis includes a Chronology of the most important dates of that time placed at the beginning of the main text, a table with all the references and the historical sources used as well as an appendix (supplement) consisting of a thoughtful consideration of the meaning of the Italian cities of mediaeval times.
The author develops the policy of the above mentioned Emperor in regard to the Lombardic cities. It is of note, that not only Frederic II had a difficult relationship with the Italian, and more specifically the Lombardic cities which were considered a constant problem for all the German Emperors. Frederic II, uncontestably a charming
2
personage of the Medieval World from any aspect, is of great interest himself for his relationship with the Italian cities, due to the fact that based on his relationship with the jurists of that Era he introduces in his dialogue the roman concept of legibus solutus και lex animata in terris which determine the relationship of the local autonomies with the sovereigns. If we consider that both these concepts became operational only after the 16th century, then we can realize how original and “ahead of time” its use by Frederic II was at the 13th century. The true history of the relationship of the two parts however was much different, since beside the invocation of the Roman Law, the cities could still block the application of the decisions and the will of the Emperor and continue to cut that way in two his territory of dominance (that one partly theoretic as well). The Emperor had already bad memories from the Italian cities since at the first years of his royalty the cities had created many difficulties to his travel to Germany to be crowned Emperor (at that time he was only Rex). Later on they would further inhibit his allied troops to proceed beyond Trento. However, later on with the support of the Pope for a crusade and the confrontation of the Cathars, an agreement was achieved for a Diet at the city of Cremona (a friendly city to the Emperor) with the representatives of the cities but finally they again managed very quickly to obviate the obligation to accept the terms of the Emperor. The Diet never took place. The Emperor will then react by applying pressure to the cities but no agreement with or recapitulation of the cities will ever occur beside the fact that some of them where on the side of the Emperor.
These problematic relationships will finally lead to rupture and war, that the Emperor will initially win. The victory however was not clear and did not last for long since later on he will be defeated in front of the city of Milan. Beside the imperial and “roman” dreams, the strong reality of the local autonomies at the medieval times will
3
prevail without Frederic II being able to finally subjugate the Italian cities. The time of the major sovereignties was not there yet.
The author describes with clarity the complexity of the disagreements and the conflicts between the different powers, “civil”, imperial, ecclesiastical, confronting all the relative legal, theological and political concepts without ever losing contact with “real history”, that is the true balance of power in the field reclaiming that way adequately the history of events.
This study constitutes a significant contribution to the problematic of the history of the Italian cities and the presence of the Emperor in Italy, shedding light on the real problem of the politics of the medieval times. Different powers that finally neutralize and mutually cancel each other, decisive role of the papal power which at the 13th century is still at its peak without having lost his ethical prestige.
The present Doctoral Thesis suggests an original point of view concerning that period of time and the different policies of both parts, the imperial one and the “communal” one, substantially contributing to the understanding and the knowledge of that era.
Prof. M Vellas, Prof. N Karapidakis, Prof. D Tsougarakis
Tuttavia lo studioso della stregoneria europea dell’età moderna incontra una problematica ulteriore, trovandosi costretto ad introdurre un elemento aggiuntivo: la formulazione teorica elaborata tra XIV e XVIII secolo in Europa dalla cultura dominante ecclesiastica e laica in relazione all’origine di questi poteri magici, un’origine diabolica, un patto con il Diavolo.
After the introduction, the author analyses the rich chapter of Frederic II in the contemporary historiography. Then, she develops the meaning of “sovereignty” in the medieval political thinking followed in another chapter by the evolution of the community institutions in Italy of the medieval times, more precisely the transition of the time of the power of the consuls of the cities to the power of the podestà.
In the fourth chapter she follows the development of the meaning of the concept of “nation” as a political project of Frederic II and then she examines two “laws”, the most important ones that crystallize its policy confronting the autonomy of the Italian cities. The doctoral thesis is then completed with two more chapters where both the role of the Pope and the retrogression face to face the different powers of the cities are studied.
The Doctoral Thesis includes a Chronology of the most important dates of that time placed at the beginning of the main text, a table with all the references and the historical sources used as well as an appendix (supplement) consisting of a thoughtful consideration of the meaning of the Italian cities of mediaeval times.
The author develops the policy of the above mentioned Emperor in regard to the Lombardic cities. It is of note, that not only Frederic II had a difficult relationship with the Italian, and more specifically the Lombardic cities which were considered a constant problem for all the German Emperors. Frederic II, uncontestably a charming
2
personage of the Medieval World from any aspect, is of great interest himself for his relationship with the Italian cities, due to the fact that based on his relationship with the jurists of that Era he introduces in his dialogue the roman concept of legibus solutus και lex animata in terris which determine the relationship of the local autonomies with the sovereigns. If we consider that both these concepts became operational only after the 16th century, then we can realize how original and “ahead of time” its use by Frederic II was at the 13th century. The true history of the relationship of the two parts however was much different, since beside the invocation of the Roman Law, the cities could still block the application of the decisions and the will of the Emperor and continue to cut that way in two his territory of dominance (that one partly theoretic as well). The Emperor had already bad memories from the Italian cities since at the first years of his royalty the cities had created many difficulties to his travel to Germany to be crowned Emperor (at that time he was only Rex). Later on they would further inhibit his allied troops to proceed beyond Trento. However, later on with the support of the Pope for a crusade and the confrontation of the Cathars, an agreement was achieved for a Diet at the city of Cremona (a friendly city to the Emperor) with the representatives of the cities but finally they again managed very quickly to obviate the obligation to accept the terms of the Emperor. The Diet never took place. The Emperor will then react by applying pressure to the cities but no agreement with or recapitulation of the cities will ever occur beside the fact that some of them where on the side of the Emperor.
These problematic relationships will finally lead to rupture and war, that the Emperor will initially win. The victory however was not clear and did not last for long since later on he will be defeated in front of the city of Milan. Beside the imperial and “roman” dreams, the strong reality of the local autonomies at the medieval times will
3
prevail without Frederic II being able to finally subjugate the Italian cities. The time of the major sovereignties was not there yet.
The author describes with clarity the complexity of the disagreements and the conflicts between the different powers, “civil”, imperial, ecclesiastical, confronting all the relative legal, theological and political concepts without ever losing contact with “real history”, that is the true balance of power in the field reclaiming that way adequately the history of events.
This study constitutes a significant contribution to the problematic of the history of the Italian cities and the presence of the Emperor in Italy, shedding light on the real problem of the politics of the medieval times. Different powers that finally neutralize and mutually cancel each other, decisive role of the papal power which at the 13th century is still at its peak without having lost his ethical prestige.
The present Doctoral Thesis suggests an original point of view concerning that period of time and the different policies of both parts, the imperial one and the “communal” one, substantially contributing to the understanding and the knowledge of that era.
Prof. M Vellas, Prof. N Karapidakis, Prof. D Tsougarakis
Tuttavia lo studioso della stregoneria europea dell’età moderna incontra una problematica ulteriore, trovandosi costretto ad introdurre un elemento aggiuntivo: la formulazione teorica elaborata tra XIV e XVIII secolo in Europa dalla cultura dominante ecclesiastica e laica in relazione all’origine di questi poteri magici, un’origine diabolica, un patto con il Diavolo.