Papers by Tiziana Lorenzetti
De Gruyter eBooks, Mar 6, 2023
Civilisations, both of the ancient and the modern world, have witnessed many forms of slavery and... more Civilisations, both of the ancient and the modern world, have witnessed many forms of slavery and dependency. The forms of slavery that have been amply researched so far have mostly dealt with the counter-position of two agent forces: on one hand those in a dominant position (e.g. rulers, masters, winners), on the other those in a condition of dependency: captives, slaves, subjugated peoples. However, certain peculiar forms of dependency have also existed which cannot be classified under the opposition of the two above-mentioned categories; one of these may be found in the culture of medieval South India 1 where what might be defined as 'self-inflicted slavery' came to the fore. 2 It had to do with a state of absolute submission to the person's chosen deity, especially to Lord Śiva; so much so that the devotee, referring to themselves as 'slave of god' (adyar or tondar in Tamil sources), was even willing to undergo acts of self-sacrifice in honour of the divine, including oblation of parts of their own body or even their life. Acts of self-oblation were not unknown in some ancient civilisations which abound in sacrificial rites. Just to mention one famous example, in Asia Minor, the priests of the goddess Cybele were reputed to castrate themselves in honour of the deity, and images of castration clamps used as instruments for such acts have, actually, come down to us. 3 But when it comes to medieval South Indiaparticularly from the ninth to the twelfth centurieswe find that manifestations of votive self-mutilation were widely practiced, not only by the so-called 'slaves of god', 4 who were regarded as true and proper holy Although the concept of the Middle Ages is of western origin, such a definition is commonly applied to a specific period of Indian history, approximately from the seventh to the fourteenth centuries. Cf.
Dependency and Slavery Studies , University of Bonn, 2023
The forms of slavery and dependence that have been amply researched so far have mostly dealt with... more The forms of slavery and dependence that have been amply researched so far have mostly dealt with the contraposition of two agent forces: on one hand, he who is in a dominant position (such as rulers, masters, winners), on the other, those who are in a condition of dependency (such as captives, slaves, subjugated people).
However, in the culture of Medieval South India, existed certain peculiar forms of dependency which cannot be classified under the above-mentioned opposition of two categories. They have to do with a state of absolute submission to one’s own chosen deity, especially to Lord Shiva, so much so that the devotee, referring to himself as the ‘slave of god’, is even willing to undergo acts of self-sacrifice in honour of the divine, including oblation of parts of his own body or even his own life.
This paper aims to explore innovative angles of this peculiar concept of self-imposed ‘slavery’ where, instead of the helpless slave, we have a ‘heroic’ slave who has willingly given up his own life to his god. A subject which deserves an in-depth study, especially from the point of view of its influence on the artistic patrimony that has come down to us.
Rivista Degli Studi Orientali, 1999
The Śiva-linga of Gudimallam, located in the Paraśurāmeśvara temple (Gudimallam, Andhra Pradesh),... more The Śiva-linga of Gudimallam, located in the Paraśurāmeśvara temple (Gudimallam, Andhra Pradesh), is considered the most ancient surviving icnographiy of the Śiva. Its dating, however, usually trace back to II century B.C., is not certain. The writer, after an investigation of the spot, has come up with new elements that could help towards a more precise dating of the sculpture. After an examination of the hypothesis of scholars concerned with the subject, as well as a stylistic analysis of the sculpture, based on a comparative study of some other ancient Indian sculptures, she suggests a new later dating of the famous Śiva's image.
L'eredità umana e scientifica di Mario Bussagli , 2021
This paper throws new light on certain peculiar and lesser known aspects of the religious and art... more This paper throws new light on certain peculiar and lesser known aspects of the religious and artistic expression under the Nayaka kingdoms, in what is present day Tamil Nadu.
The rich artistic production of the Nayakas, originally governors on behalf of the Vijayanagar empire and then, after its dissolution, autonomous sovereigns, deserves an in-depth interdisciplinary study, both from the social and the political perspective.
What should particularly engage our attention are the vary many artistic and cultural innovations that the Nayakas undertook. It becomes quite clear that these novelties had a very focused scope: to advance the political agenda of the Nayakas. This undeniably political function, essentially, opens up a whole new window to the re-evaluation of Nayaka art, as will be documented in the course of this paper.
The present investigation will demonstrate how, driven by the necessity to unify and strengthen their autonomous rule, the Nayakas served themselves of religio-artistic motifs, ritualistic innovations, and structural changes in architecture, to attain their political objectives.
Studies in Asian Art & Cultures (SAAC), 2020
In many ancient traditions, weather Western or Eastern, the veneration of the footprints left by ... more In many ancient traditions, weather Western or Eastern, the veneration of the footprints left by a god, a saint, or a master is quite common. Indeed, plenty of such images, in stone, marble, silver, ivory or some that are even painted, have come down to us, still functioning as votive objects.
In the Indian milieu, in particular, the widespread cult of the footprints coexists with an equally prevalent devotion to the guru’s and ascetic’s footwear (pādukā).
The present paper will attempt to throw new light on certain aspects of the cult of the guru’s sandals and other footwear, in the Liṅgāyat tradition. Focusing on how the Liṅgāyat practices and peculiarities compare with similar cultic traditions in the larger Hindu culture.
GBP Università Gregoriana, 2021
L’articolo è un estratto della conferenza ‘Domine quo vadis, la venerazione delle impronte nella ... more L’articolo è un estratto della conferenza ‘Domine quo vadis, la venerazione delle impronte nella tradizione Cristiana e Indiana’, tenuta presso la Pontificia Università Gregoriana, nell’ambito delle attività del Forum ‘Cristianesimo e Religioni e Culture dell’Asia’. Interreligious and Intercultural Investigations n.13 (Roma, 26/11/2018)
Il Novissimo Ramusio, ISMEO, 2020
The present article (in English, summarised in Italian) begins with an overview of the ancient ar... more The present article (in English, summarised in Italian) begins with an overview of the ancient art of dance in India in its manifold aspects, moving onto its transformation – through the agency of international contacts – into new dance forms, in the period that preceded and followed India’s independence. The core of the essay then investigates how the new dance styles (although an intercultural product), came to be representative of Indian traditional cultural-artistic heritage, becoming a key aspect in making Independent India’s identity.
IN :VOICES OF FREEDOM. SOCIETY, CULTURE AND IDEAS IN THE 70TH YEAR OF INDIA’S INDEPENDENCE
http://www.scienzeelettere.it/book/50179.html
Átopon, Rivista di psicoantropologia simbolica e tradizioni religiose , 2016
L’immagine della caverna ha rivestito una importanza fondamentale nelle rappresentazioni mitico-s... more L’immagine della caverna ha rivestito una importanza fondamentale nelle rappresentazioni mitico-simboliche di molte civiltà antiche (sia orientali che occidentali), caricandosi di numerose valenze che offrono diversi livelli di lettura.
Il presente articolo, sviluppando alcune comparazioni storico-religiose fra diversi contesti culturali ‒dal mondo greco-romano a quello iranico e indiano ‒ analizza alcuni aspetti fondamentali del simbolo. In particolare, è esaminato un concetto-cardine che racchiude gran parte delle valenze polisemiche del simbolo, essendone il punto di partenza e di arrivo. È questa l’idea che, riecheggiando nella filosofia, nella religione e nell’arte delle culture considerate, specialmente quella indiana, identifica la caverna come l’alveo della Madre Terra dove si attua l’eterno processo del divenire cosmico. Un ‘divenire’ che non si realizza solo sul piano materiale, ma anche su quello spirituale poiché la grotta è soprattutto uno spazio simbolico palingenetico ed escatologico.
Kalakshetra Journal issue 8 , 2020
The article focuses on the ancient multivalent connections between dance and sculpture, in India ... more The article focuses on the ancient multivalent connections between dance and sculpture, in India
Dev Publisher, 2019
The iconographic production of the Tamil Nāyaka kingdoms, apart from the Vijayanagara influences ... more The iconographic production of the Tamil Nāyaka kingdoms, apart from the Vijayanagara influences and the heritage of the earlier dynasties who ruled in the area (e.g. the Pāṇḍyas and the Cōḷas), as well as to remoter traditions, both cultured and popular, seems to reflect peculiar trends, which we also find in the architecture: original and a very rich production, 5 monumentality and theatrical effects in the sculptures -for instance, the enormous monolithic statue of Nandin in front of the Bṛhadīśvara Temple in Tañjāvūrand the conspicuous use of painting, much more than before. Indeed, a number of Nāyaka temples were entirely covered in frescoes and polychrome stuccos were added within and without all sanctuaries. All this Tiziana Lorenzetti.indd 1 6/16/2019 4:25:09 AM
ARCHIVIO JULIEN RIES per l'ANTROPOLOGIA SIMBOLICA, 2018
Il problema del complesso rapporto fra religione e politica ha sempre giocato un ruolo importante... more Il problema del complesso rapporto fra religione e politica ha sempre giocato un ruolo importante nella storia dell’umanità e si è posto spesso all’attenzione del pensiero occidentale declinandosi in modalità differenti nella speculazione teologica e nelle filosofie materialiste.
La tensione tra i concetti religiosi, spesso rigidi nella loro teoria, e le necessità di flessibilità e spregiudicatezza della prassi politica ha attraversato la storia dell’occidente originando collisioni, compromessi, ma anche fruttuosi dialoghi e convergenze, riconoscibili anche nel mondo indiano, pur nella specificità di un contesto dove il primato della religione si è mantenuto più a lungo e con maggiori ricadute sulla società civile.
Il presente contributo si propone di indagare modalità e strategie attraverso le quali i sovrani indiani di epoca medievale e moderna si sono serviti della religione, dei rituali e perfino dell’arte per rafforzare e legittimare il loro potere politico, in una relazione dinamica e spesso intricata fra regalità e religione.
The religious devotion, known as bhakti, arose relatively late in the religious panorama of anci... more The religious devotion, known as bhakti, arose relatively late in the religious panorama of ancient India, dominated up to then by the Vedic-Brahmanic tradition. The first part of this essay outlines the origins and the history of the so called “bhakti movement”, which significantly altered the history of Indian thought. The second part analyses, in the area of
Rajasthan, the cult of Śrīnāthjī, a peculiar aspect of the god Kṛṣṇa, who, more than other divinities, has inspired the great Hindu devotional traditionsover centuries. The critical study of the multiple and complex levels of the religio-philosophical meanings associated with the cult of Śrīnāthjī
and the related “path of grace” (puṣṭi mārg), is completed with a detailed analysis of some valuable paintings connected with the cult of this deity.
These paintings, known as pichhwāis, belonging to the collection of the
“Textiles and Arts of People of India” (tapi), were exhibited in the National Museum of History of Art of New Delhi between December 2007 and January 2008.
The contacts between islamic world and indian culture – expecially after the XI century – were... more The contacts between islamic world and indian culture – expecially after the XI century – were not only destructive and contradicting. As a matter of fact, while Islamic civilization absorbed and diffused elsewhere elements of indian culture that it had picked up, in the case of India itself fruitful interaction were generated in many field of the complex indo-islamic society : artistic, literary and philosophical- religious .
As the centuries rolled by and the islamic communities (now present throughout the Indian subcontinent) prospered, the confrontation that had grown up between the two cultures showed no signs of flagging. Aspects less note of these interactions and mutual influences also revealed in local usages and customs, religious rituals and, indeed, in folk traditions.
Particularly in the state of Tamil Nadu, islamic communities show particularly strong interaction with the hindu population, giving rise to many and various forms of reciprocal influences, on a much larger scale than happens in the North of India.
It must, however, be noted that, despite the centuries-long interaction of tamil muslim with the local society, the last ten-year periods have seen a process of increasing islamic radicalisation , which is bringing to a closure/opposition towards other local communities. Although in tamil country this process is limited to the northern urban areas, it is however becoming a general problem, not only in the Indian subcontinent, but also throughout all the other countries where islamic communities live together with people of different religious.
From the 10th century onwards, substantial artistic evidence can be found that would seem to test... more From the 10th century onwards, substantial artistic evidence can be found that would seem to testify that, by then, sectarian antagonism had already entered the fabric of the south Indian social order.
In this paper I shall provide unpublished artistic documentation on such phenomenon, especially the antagonism towards the Jains, not only from the Hindus, but also from the Virashaivas, whose expansion was one of the factors in the definitive decline of Jain power in Karnataka .
The artistic evidence shown highlights a scarcely known erstwhile trend: the establishment of a new visual code according to which the Jains and Buddhists were dehumanized as asuras against whom the Hindu gods always fought. Indeed, alongside the persecutions, the Hindu–brahminic tradition created a wide mythology and stereotypes to demonise their religious enemies.
Between the nineteenth and the twentieth century, the age that saw the beginning of global commun... more Between the nineteenth and the twentieth century, the age that saw the beginning of global communications, Indian painting took in some of the trends of European Modernism.
However, this period of Indian painting went through a new phase soon enough.
Indeed, already during the so-called ‘nationalistic interlude’ and especially after independence, many Indian artists, in delicate equilibrium between global modernity and national identity reclaimed their artistic identity.
In this regard Neville Tuli writes:
“The search for ‘Indianness’ is one focus; the oscillation between a traditional artistic heritage and the changing art norms of Western modernism being its main pendulum”.
In the complex cultural and artistic panorama of the first decades of the twentieth century, two main centres of art may be mentioned: the ‘Shantiniketan School of Arts’ founded in Bengal by Rabindranath Tagore and the ‘Sir Jamshetjee Jeejeebhoy School of Art’, established in Bombay in 1857.
Both schools proposed to engender a modern Indian painting that reflected the changing spirit of the new era, but, at the same time, there was the desire to create a meaningful artistic dialogue between the past and the present of the country. Indeed, tradition and modernity were not postulated as necessary adversaries, but as mutually complementary phenomena. But the results of the two schools were quite different, one from the other.
The Bombay school left the tendencies largely related to the canons of Victorian British academies − which had characterized its activity at the beginning − and generally promoted new orientations linked, especially in contents, to the ancient autochthonous traditions.
The Bengal school, on the contrary, created such a vocabulary of images as to break with the pre-established schemes, taking its just distances from all Western influences – which Tagore himself considered ‘rather restrictive’– and giving life to multiple and unforeseeable results.
In this vast panorama – which deserves further studies, especially from the perspective of an evolving national ethos, as much as it is very closely connected to the cultural and social history of India of the twentieth century – another phenomenon is to be remembered: less known but most interesting, it also contributed to the creation of a pictorial identity for the youthful India.
It had to do with the diffusion of ancient traditions and pictorial techniques, generally confined to a coterie of the elite, which were re-used and often re-elaborated by modern painters and opportunely divulged.
The Brahmari painting
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, western Bengal found itself in the heart of an extraordinary cultural phenomenon, which, as we have seen, represented one of the strongest roots of the Indian independence movement. In this complex panorama, wherein flourished new orientations of art and thought, a group of Bengali artists, the well known Acharya Chattopadhyaya (b. 1898) amongst them, re-used and divulged an ancient local technique, the so-called Brahmari painting which, perhaps because it was restricted to a coterie of artists, has not been an object of in depth study until now.
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Papers by Tiziana Lorenzetti
However, in the culture of Medieval South India, existed certain peculiar forms of dependency which cannot be classified under the above-mentioned opposition of two categories. They have to do with a state of absolute submission to one’s own chosen deity, especially to Lord Shiva, so much so that the devotee, referring to himself as the ‘slave of god’, is even willing to undergo acts of self-sacrifice in honour of the divine, including oblation of parts of his own body or even his own life.
This paper aims to explore innovative angles of this peculiar concept of self-imposed ‘slavery’ where, instead of the helpless slave, we have a ‘heroic’ slave who has willingly given up his own life to his god. A subject which deserves an in-depth study, especially from the point of view of its influence on the artistic patrimony that has come down to us.
The rich artistic production of the Nayakas, originally governors on behalf of the Vijayanagar empire and then, after its dissolution, autonomous sovereigns, deserves an in-depth interdisciplinary study, both from the social and the political perspective.
What should particularly engage our attention are the vary many artistic and cultural innovations that the Nayakas undertook. It becomes quite clear that these novelties had a very focused scope: to advance the political agenda of the Nayakas. This undeniably political function, essentially, opens up a whole new window to the re-evaluation of Nayaka art, as will be documented in the course of this paper.
The present investigation will demonstrate how, driven by the necessity to unify and strengthen their autonomous rule, the Nayakas served themselves of religio-artistic motifs, ritualistic innovations, and structural changes in architecture, to attain their political objectives.
In the Indian milieu, in particular, the widespread cult of the footprints coexists with an equally prevalent devotion to the guru’s and ascetic’s footwear (pādukā).
The present paper will attempt to throw new light on certain aspects of the cult of the guru’s sandals and other footwear, in the Liṅgāyat tradition. Focusing on how the Liṅgāyat practices and peculiarities compare with similar cultic traditions in the larger Hindu culture.
IN :VOICES OF FREEDOM. SOCIETY, CULTURE AND IDEAS IN THE 70TH YEAR OF INDIA’S INDEPENDENCE
http://www.scienzeelettere.it/book/50179.html
Il presente articolo, sviluppando alcune comparazioni storico-religiose fra diversi contesti culturali ‒dal mondo greco-romano a quello iranico e indiano ‒ analizza alcuni aspetti fondamentali del simbolo. In particolare, è esaminato un concetto-cardine che racchiude gran parte delle valenze polisemiche del simbolo, essendone il punto di partenza e di arrivo. È questa l’idea che, riecheggiando nella filosofia, nella religione e nell’arte delle culture considerate, specialmente quella indiana, identifica la caverna come l’alveo della Madre Terra dove si attua l’eterno processo del divenire cosmico. Un ‘divenire’ che non si realizza solo sul piano materiale, ma anche su quello spirituale poiché la grotta è soprattutto uno spazio simbolico palingenetico ed escatologico.
La tensione tra i concetti religiosi, spesso rigidi nella loro teoria, e le necessità di flessibilità e spregiudicatezza della prassi politica ha attraversato la storia dell’occidente originando collisioni, compromessi, ma anche fruttuosi dialoghi e convergenze, riconoscibili anche nel mondo indiano, pur nella specificità di un contesto dove il primato della religione si è mantenuto più a lungo e con maggiori ricadute sulla società civile.
Il presente contributo si propone di indagare modalità e strategie attraverso le quali i sovrani indiani di epoca medievale e moderna si sono serviti della religione, dei rituali e perfino dell’arte per rafforzare e legittimare il loro potere politico, in una relazione dinamica e spesso intricata fra regalità e religione.
Rajasthan, the cult of Śrīnāthjī, a peculiar aspect of the god Kṛṣṇa, who, more than other divinities, has inspired the great Hindu devotional traditionsover centuries. The critical study of the multiple and complex levels of the religio-philosophical meanings associated with the cult of Śrīnāthjī
and the related “path of grace” (puṣṭi mārg), is completed with a detailed analysis of some valuable paintings connected with the cult of this deity.
These paintings, known as pichhwāis, belonging to the collection of the
“Textiles and Arts of People of India” (tapi), were exhibited in the National Museum of History of Art of New Delhi between December 2007 and January 2008.
As the centuries rolled by and the islamic communities (now present throughout the Indian subcontinent) prospered, the confrontation that had grown up between the two cultures showed no signs of flagging. Aspects less note of these interactions and mutual influences also revealed in local usages and customs, religious rituals and, indeed, in folk traditions.
Particularly in the state of Tamil Nadu, islamic communities show particularly strong interaction with the hindu population, giving rise to many and various forms of reciprocal influences, on a much larger scale than happens in the North of India.
It must, however, be noted that, despite the centuries-long interaction of tamil muslim with the local society, the last ten-year periods have seen a process of increasing islamic radicalisation , which is bringing to a closure/opposition towards other local communities. Although in tamil country this process is limited to the northern urban areas, it is however becoming a general problem, not only in the Indian subcontinent, but also throughout all the other countries where islamic communities live together with people of different religious.
In this paper I shall provide unpublished artistic documentation on such phenomenon, especially the antagonism towards the Jains, not only from the Hindus, but also from the Virashaivas, whose expansion was one of the factors in the definitive decline of Jain power in Karnataka .
The artistic evidence shown highlights a scarcely known erstwhile trend: the establishment of a new visual code according to which the Jains and Buddhists were dehumanized as asuras against whom the Hindu gods always fought. Indeed, alongside the persecutions, the Hindu–brahminic tradition created a wide mythology and stereotypes to demonise their religious enemies.
However, this period of Indian painting went through a new phase soon enough.
Indeed, already during the so-called ‘nationalistic interlude’ and especially after independence, many Indian artists, in delicate equilibrium between global modernity and national identity reclaimed their artistic identity.
In this regard Neville Tuli writes:
“The search for ‘Indianness’ is one focus; the oscillation between a traditional artistic heritage and the changing art norms of Western modernism being its main pendulum”.
In the complex cultural and artistic panorama of the first decades of the twentieth century, two main centres of art may be mentioned: the ‘Shantiniketan School of Arts’ founded in Bengal by Rabindranath Tagore and the ‘Sir Jamshetjee Jeejeebhoy School of Art’, established in Bombay in 1857.
Both schools proposed to engender a modern Indian painting that reflected the changing spirit of the new era, but, at the same time, there was the desire to create a meaningful artistic dialogue between the past and the present of the country. Indeed, tradition and modernity were not postulated as necessary adversaries, but as mutually complementary phenomena. But the results of the two schools were quite different, one from the other.
The Bombay school left the tendencies largely related to the canons of Victorian British academies − which had characterized its activity at the beginning − and generally promoted new orientations linked, especially in contents, to the ancient autochthonous traditions.
The Bengal school, on the contrary, created such a vocabulary of images as to break with the pre-established schemes, taking its just distances from all Western influences – which Tagore himself considered ‘rather restrictive’– and giving life to multiple and unforeseeable results.
In this vast panorama – which deserves further studies, especially from the perspective of an evolving national ethos, as much as it is very closely connected to the cultural and social history of India of the twentieth century – another phenomenon is to be remembered: less known but most interesting, it also contributed to the creation of a pictorial identity for the youthful India.
It had to do with the diffusion of ancient traditions and pictorial techniques, generally confined to a coterie of the elite, which were re-used and often re-elaborated by modern painters and opportunely divulged.
The Brahmari painting
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, western Bengal found itself in the heart of an extraordinary cultural phenomenon, which, as we have seen, represented one of the strongest roots of the Indian independence movement. In this complex panorama, wherein flourished new orientations of art and thought, a group of Bengali artists, the well known Acharya Chattopadhyaya (b. 1898) amongst them, re-used and divulged an ancient local technique, the so-called Brahmari painting which, perhaps because it was restricted to a coterie of artists, has not been an object of in depth study until now.
However, in the culture of Medieval South India, existed certain peculiar forms of dependency which cannot be classified under the above-mentioned opposition of two categories. They have to do with a state of absolute submission to one’s own chosen deity, especially to Lord Shiva, so much so that the devotee, referring to himself as the ‘slave of god’, is even willing to undergo acts of self-sacrifice in honour of the divine, including oblation of parts of his own body or even his own life.
This paper aims to explore innovative angles of this peculiar concept of self-imposed ‘slavery’ where, instead of the helpless slave, we have a ‘heroic’ slave who has willingly given up his own life to his god. A subject which deserves an in-depth study, especially from the point of view of its influence on the artistic patrimony that has come down to us.
The rich artistic production of the Nayakas, originally governors on behalf of the Vijayanagar empire and then, after its dissolution, autonomous sovereigns, deserves an in-depth interdisciplinary study, both from the social and the political perspective.
What should particularly engage our attention are the vary many artistic and cultural innovations that the Nayakas undertook. It becomes quite clear that these novelties had a very focused scope: to advance the political agenda of the Nayakas. This undeniably political function, essentially, opens up a whole new window to the re-evaluation of Nayaka art, as will be documented in the course of this paper.
The present investigation will demonstrate how, driven by the necessity to unify and strengthen their autonomous rule, the Nayakas served themselves of religio-artistic motifs, ritualistic innovations, and structural changes in architecture, to attain their political objectives.
In the Indian milieu, in particular, the widespread cult of the footprints coexists with an equally prevalent devotion to the guru’s and ascetic’s footwear (pādukā).
The present paper will attempt to throw new light on certain aspects of the cult of the guru’s sandals and other footwear, in the Liṅgāyat tradition. Focusing on how the Liṅgāyat practices and peculiarities compare with similar cultic traditions in the larger Hindu culture.
IN :VOICES OF FREEDOM. SOCIETY, CULTURE AND IDEAS IN THE 70TH YEAR OF INDIA’S INDEPENDENCE
http://www.scienzeelettere.it/book/50179.html
Il presente articolo, sviluppando alcune comparazioni storico-religiose fra diversi contesti culturali ‒dal mondo greco-romano a quello iranico e indiano ‒ analizza alcuni aspetti fondamentali del simbolo. In particolare, è esaminato un concetto-cardine che racchiude gran parte delle valenze polisemiche del simbolo, essendone il punto di partenza e di arrivo. È questa l’idea che, riecheggiando nella filosofia, nella religione e nell’arte delle culture considerate, specialmente quella indiana, identifica la caverna come l’alveo della Madre Terra dove si attua l’eterno processo del divenire cosmico. Un ‘divenire’ che non si realizza solo sul piano materiale, ma anche su quello spirituale poiché la grotta è soprattutto uno spazio simbolico palingenetico ed escatologico.
La tensione tra i concetti religiosi, spesso rigidi nella loro teoria, e le necessità di flessibilità e spregiudicatezza della prassi politica ha attraversato la storia dell’occidente originando collisioni, compromessi, ma anche fruttuosi dialoghi e convergenze, riconoscibili anche nel mondo indiano, pur nella specificità di un contesto dove il primato della religione si è mantenuto più a lungo e con maggiori ricadute sulla società civile.
Il presente contributo si propone di indagare modalità e strategie attraverso le quali i sovrani indiani di epoca medievale e moderna si sono serviti della religione, dei rituali e perfino dell’arte per rafforzare e legittimare il loro potere politico, in una relazione dinamica e spesso intricata fra regalità e religione.
Rajasthan, the cult of Śrīnāthjī, a peculiar aspect of the god Kṛṣṇa, who, more than other divinities, has inspired the great Hindu devotional traditionsover centuries. The critical study of the multiple and complex levels of the religio-philosophical meanings associated with the cult of Śrīnāthjī
and the related “path of grace” (puṣṭi mārg), is completed with a detailed analysis of some valuable paintings connected with the cult of this deity.
These paintings, known as pichhwāis, belonging to the collection of the
“Textiles and Arts of People of India” (tapi), were exhibited in the National Museum of History of Art of New Delhi between December 2007 and January 2008.
As the centuries rolled by and the islamic communities (now present throughout the Indian subcontinent) prospered, the confrontation that had grown up between the two cultures showed no signs of flagging. Aspects less note of these interactions and mutual influences also revealed in local usages and customs, religious rituals and, indeed, in folk traditions.
Particularly in the state of Tamil Nadu, islamic communities show particularly strong interaction with the hindu population, giving rise to many and various forms of reciprocal influences, on a much larger scale than happens in the North of India.
It must, however, be noted that, despite the centuries-long interaction of tamil muslim with the local society, the last ten-year periods have seen a process of increasing islamic radicalisation , which is bringing to a closure/opposition towards other local communities. Although in tamil country this process is limited to the northern urban areas, it is however becoming a general problem, not only in the Indian subcontinent, but also throughout all the other countries where islamic communities live together with people of different religious.
In this paper I shall provide unpublished artistic documentation on such phenomenon, especially the antagonism towards the Jains, not only from the Hindus, but also from the Virashaivas, whose expansion was one of the factors in the definitive decline of Jain power in Karnataka .
The artistic evidence shown highlights a scarcely known erstwhile trend: the establishment of a new visual code according to which the Jains and Buddhists were dehumanized as asuras against whom the Hindu gods always fought. Indeed, alongside the persecutions, the Hindu–brahminic tradition created a wide mythology and stereotypes to demonise their religious enemies.
However, this period of Indian painting went through a new phase soon enough.
Indeed, already during the so-called ‘nationalistic interlude’ and especially after independence, many Indian artists, in delicate equilibrium between global modernity and national identity reclaimed their artistic identity.
In this regard Neville Tuli writes:
“The search for ‘Indianness’ is one focus; the oscillation between a traditional artistic heritage and the changing art norms of Western modernism being its main pendulum”.
In the complex cultural and artistic panorama of the first decades of the twentieth century, two main centres of art may be mentioned: the ‘Shantiniketan School of Arts’ founded in Bengal by Rabindranath Tagore and the ‘Sir Jamshetjee Jeejeebhoy School of Art’, established in Bombay in 1857.
Both schools proposed to engender a modern Indian painting that reflected the changing spirit of the new era, but, at the same time, there was the desire to create a meaningful artistic dialogue between the past and the present of the country. Indeed, tradition and modernity were not postulated as necessary adversaries, but as mutually complementary phenomena. But the results of the two schools were quite different, one from the other.
The Bombay school left the tendencies largely related to the canons of Victorian British academies − which had characterized its activity at the beginning − and generally promoted new orientations linked, especially in contents, to the ancient autochthonous traditions.
The Bengal school, on the contrary, created such a vocabulary of images as to break with the pre-established schemes, taking its just distances from all Western influences – which Tagore himself considered ‘rather restrictive’– and giving life to multiple and unforeseeable results.
In this vast panorama – which deserves further studies, especially from the perspective of an evolving national ethos, as much as it is very closely connected to the cultural and social history of India of the twentieth century – another phenomenon is to be remembered: less known but most interesting, it also contributed to the creation of a pictorial identity for the youthful India.
It had to do with the diffusion of ancient traditions and pictorial techniques, generally confined to a coterie of the elite, which were re-used and often re-elaborated by modern painters and opportunely divulged.
The Brahmari painting
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, western Bengal found itself in the heart of an extraordinary cultural phenomenon, which, as we have seen, represented one of the strongest roots of the Indian independence movement. In this complex panorama, wherein flourished new orientations of art and thought, a group of Bengali artists, the well known Acharya Chattopadhyaya (b. 1898) amongst them, re-used and divulged an ancient local technique, the so-called Brahmari painting which, perhaps because it was restricted to a coterie of artists, has not been an object of in depth study until now.
India has always been known for the plurality of cultures and religions that have been part of its historic tapestry since the remotest times. Amongst these traditions, often in conflict with one another, the Hindu tradition is of particular interest because of its dynamic and heterogeneous character. The humus of Hinduism has continually given rise to doctrines and mythologies that have, then, come to be identified as new movements and currents of thought valid on their own, without, however, that there obtained a complete obliteration of the archaic mould.
The present paper investigates the Liṅgāyat movement that rose in present day Karnataka, in the twelfth century. Founded by Bāsava, a reformer of Śivaite background, the Liṅgāyat doctrine, with respect to the Hindu/Brahmanic world, represented a real innovation both from a religious and a social point of view. However, in the process of substantially modifying the teachings of the founder, by and by the Liṅgāyat community embraced a series of religious, ritualistic and symbolic precepts from the Hindu milieu.
The motives for such an evolution, lasting across the centuries down to this day, are retraced through the modalities of conversion of the new religiosity, in addition to factors of social and economic nature.
The papers and themes that emerged in the course of the day, on what drove India then, what she strove for, what are her emergent challenges now, are now collected together in a handy full-colour laid paper volume of some 200 pages.
The introductory essay by Adriano Rossi, President of ISMEO – International Association for Mediterranean and Oriental Studies, deals with the figure of the great Italian scholar Giuseppe Tucci (1894 – 1984). Throughout his lifetime, Tucci was a living bridge between Italian and South-Asian cultures. He not only taught Italian Language, Art and Literature in a number of prestigious Indian universities, but he was also one of twentieth century’s major Orientalist —Indologist, archaeologist, explorer, eminent expert in Tibetan culture and Buddhist Studies. In 1933 Tucci, along with the philosopher Giovanni Gentile (1875-1944), founded, l’Istituto per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente (the Institute for Middle and Far East), IsMEO, of which the new ISMEO would represent an ideal continuation.
However, what’s especially worth noting in Rossi’s paper is that the figure of Tucci, treated both from scholarly and human points of view with reference to his own writings, comes out here in all its stark objectivity; therefore, this essay does justice to Tucci against some recent misrepresentations of his figure and constitutes a landmark for anyone who wishes to delve deeper into this stalwart Italian Orientalist.
Y. K. S. Murthy, one of the most respected and knowledgeable members of the Indian community in Italy, has written a quite unique essay, speaking as a freedom fighter himself and as one of the last remaining witnesses to the months immediately before and after India’s Independence. His refreshing testimony represents the view of a generation that took part in the dramatic events of that time.
Stella Sandahl’s incisive article focuses on the problems and the challenges that arose, after independence, in establishing Hindī as the official language of the Union, in accordance with the Indian constitution. As a matter of fact, in spite of the central government’s all-out efforts to propagate Hindī at the national level, as of today, it is still not part of the linguistic background of all Indians. Sandahl identifies several reasons for this state of affairs, amongst which was the intent to draw the vocabulary of Hindī primarily from Sanskrit, with the consequence that many of the new Sanskritized Hindī words have not entered the public domain. By depicting, on the contrary, the almost complete success that Pakistan has had in imposing Urdū since 1947, she makes interesting observations, building up to the final thought-provoking assertion that, in popular parlance, there actually exists a de facto ‘spoken Hindi’ understood by most Indians throughout the country, yet distant from, if not at variance with, the Sanskritised Hindī.
Mario Prayer analyses the administrative organisation of independent India, particularly the structure known as the Panchayati Raj (a system of grassroots government by ‘committees of five’) acting as intersection-nodes between peripheral localities, the state and the Centre. It’s a subject of great relevance in the administrative sector of the post-independence era, since the Panchayats Raj, the single largest body of democratically elected local leaders in the world, represents one of the primary factors of political, social and economic cohesion of Indian society.
Sanjukta Das Gupta touches on a live and stirring field, namely the development and peculiar characteristics of feminist and ecological movements before and after Independence. Since colonial times, such movements have fought both for social justice along Gandhian lines— against patriarchal oppression — and the ecological sustainability. Das Gupta maintains that independent India, contrary to the past, has witnessed an ever-increasing participation of subaltern and marginalized women at the grass-roots level, who have been drawing upon their own experiences and organizational capacities in their struggle against social discrimination. They have been in the forefront of the land-rights movement; particularly worthy of note was the 1970s’ ‘Chipko andolan’ (from chipko, to cling, and andolan, campaign, in Hindi). The images of women in the Himalayan forests with their arms around majestic trees, defying the illegal fellers by demanding to be cut down with them — attracted worldwide attention.
The highly engaging contributions by Julia Hegewald and Giuseppe Flora, analyse the post-independence ferments from social and artistic points of view, the latter being of no-secondary importance, since it is mostly through visual arts that Independent India presents itself to a national and international audience. Hegewald’s paper builds on two interlinked themes, corresponding to two different approaches to architecture and urban planning taken soon after Independence: continuity with the colonial past and new departures. The latter trend was well realised in the layout of Chandigarh, the new capital city of Punjab, where the modernism of Le Corbusier, promoted by Nehru, India’s first prime minister, was a fitting statement of an independent, modern and progressive state. The two themes are treated in-depth and finely illustrated with several photos taken by the author herself, which highlight the major architectonic guidelines promoted in and by Independent India and, more importantly, the reasons underpinning such choices.
Flora’s article, illustrated by rare photos and pictures, underlines how Independent India became a pole of attraction for intellectuals and artists from all over the world. The new nation entered on its own right the twentieth century international cultural milieu. By the end of the 1960s India inspired the counterculture in the West. The ‘Indian craze’ of those years was partly due to the Beatles' Indian sojourn in February-March 1968. Of greater significance, anyway, had been the encounter of the Beat poets, Allen Ginsberg, Peter Orlovsky and Gary Snyder with a new generation of rebellious Indian poets and artists.
The Indo-Anglian writer Olaf shom Kirtimukh has traced the graphic evolution of India’s national flag, underlining what makes it so unique. He opines that while the flags of newly independent countries tend to illustrate events and values that forged their own recent past, the Indian banner upholds ideals that seem to be more relevant today than they were 70 years ago — not only to Indians but to all mankind. More so, having also had a long international career as an advertising copywriter, shom Kirtimukh has thrown new light on the interpretation of certain details appearing in the Indian tricolour as well as the preliminary experiments that led up to it.
Lastly, starting with the historicisation of the ancient Indian classical dances, Tiziana Lorenzetti’s paper deals with changes occurred in the colonial and post-colonial period, when the ancient performing art was transformed – through the agency of international contacts – into new dance forms. The core of the essay investigates how, by what processes and devices, the new dance styles (although an intercultural product) came to be representative of Indian traditional cultural-artistic heritage, becoming a key aspect in the making of Independent India’s identity and imagery.
The works here exhibited, collected over the last sixty years from some ruined temples of the area and hardly known to students of Indian art before this publication, are very important to reach a correct and balanced perspective of medieval Indian art in Madhya Pradesh. Indeed, they represent the outcome of a significant period of development of forms and styles between the early and the later phases of Indian medieval sculpture. Moreover, they deserve a place of their own in the domain of Indian art due to their capturing beauty and original character.
In this book, richly illustrated by the author’s personal photographs, the sculptures are illustrated not only from the iconographic point of view, but also in connection with the relevant myths and the historico-religious beliefs that constitute their proper cultural background.
This approach is meant to offer an in-depth understanding as well as a rewarding enjoyment of the distinctive flavour of Indian art to the visitors of the Museum.
The current year brings up a historic milestone for the two major wars of the past century: it is both the centenary of the outbreak of the First World War and the 71th anniversary of the Normandy Landing, which was to turn the course of the Second.
In the worldwide commemorations that have followed, a tribute of honour has duly been paid to the fallen, known and unknown, who gave their lives. This sacrifice was made not only by the peoples whose territories were directly drawn into the conflict, but also by soldiers from far-off lands. Among these were the Indians, who gave proof of their valour when drafted into the British imperial armed forces, during the First World War, and, in the Second, as volunteers from the Indian Army bracketed into the English contingents.
Among the Indian combatants, in terms of lives lost, the Sikhs were the ones who rendered the greatest sacrifice to the cause of freedom for peoples and places very remote from their own country.
The present photographic Exhibition, at the Biblioteca Angelica in Rome (15 Nov. - 3 Dec. 2015), wishes to be a tribute to the courage and the sacrifice of all the Indian combatants – of the Sikhs, in particular– who fought alongside their European counterparts in the First World War (1914-1918).
It is the Italian edition of the exhibition,‘Empire, Faith & War: the Sikhs and World War One’, organised by the United Kingdom Punjab Heritage Association at the Brunei Gal-lery (London 9 July - 28 Sept.2014).
In addition, since the history, culture and art of the Sikhs is relatively little known in Italy, despite the fact that, at the European level, the Sikh presence in Italy is second
in strength only to that of the UK, the Exhibition on the Sikhs and the Great War has
been augmented by a preliminary Section that will present an outline of the Sikh religion and people.
The catalogue of the Exhibition consists of 164 pages and 46 colour illustrations, plus an appendix of articles.
Distinct chapters are dedicated to the following topics:
1) The multi-level relationship between the temple, the cosmos and the body of the primordial being.
2) The antecedents of the Indian sacred monuments – timber and rock-cut structures.
3) The basic structures of the Hindu temple and the main temple typologies.
4) Temple sculptural elements, both anthropomorphic and symbolic.
5) The historical, political, economic, and social role played by the temple in Indian society from its medieval origins to modern time.
This multi-faceted subject-matter is also treated in the perspective of a historical comparison of differences and similarities with some fundamental examples from Western traditions and practices of constructing the sacred.