This is a 'preproof' accepted article for Mineralogical Magazine. This version may be subject to ... more This is a 'preproof' accepted article for Mineralogical Magazine. This version may be subject to change during the production process.
<p>Rajnagar Marble, occurring around Rajnagar and Kankroli towns in Rajsamand district of s... more <p>Rajnagar Marble, occurring around Rajnagar and Kankroli towns in Rajsamand district of south-central Rajasthan make up the largest marble deposits in India. Rajnagar Marble belongs to late Paleoproterozoic Aravalli Supergroup.&#160; It is mostly white, coarse-grained and compact dolomitic marble. Mining is currently being carried out at several, small to medium-sized, open quarries using both conventional and mechanized operations. Although the Rajnagar Marble has been extensively used in archaeological monuments for centuries, it received recognition since the construction of spectacularly carved embankment (Nau-Chowky) of the Lake Rajsamand built during the period 1662-1676 CE. Its use has been recorded in the 8<sup>th</sup> century Eklingji Temple and numerous other temples in Udaipur and vicinity. Besides temples, embankments, step-well constructions, Rajnagar Marble was preferred for carving of idols of various Hindu deities, including the famous 12<sup>th</sup> century Palasma 7-horse drawn chariot Sun idol with nine planets revolving around it. But use of this Dev-Patthar (God's Stone), was avoided for flooring and private dwellings of humans in keeping with the Hindu mythological beliefs. Hence for the residential buildings, Rajnagar Marble was popularly used as a unique ground-in-hand-mill-and-sieved-through-muslin-sieve marble powder-lime paste (~100-micron size) to give the walls, pillars, lanterns, or even floors the "marble-finish". An intangible heritage process typical and unique of the erstwhile Rajputana. &#160;Most palaces and havelies of Mewar area, including the five palaces of Udaipur namely, the City Palace Complex, Jagniwas (now the Taj Lake Palace Hotel), Jag Mandir, Lakshmi Vilas Palace and the Sajjangarh (Monsoon Palace) were all built partly in Rajnagar Marble stone, but mostly with marble powder-lime paste finish on lime-sand-quartzite masonry works. &#160;Numerous architectural sites such as Moti Mahal, embankments of Fateh Sagar Lake and Rajsamand Lake, Eklingji Temple, Jagdish Temple, Saheliyon-ki-Badi, cenotaphs of the Royal family members at Ayad (1620 CE onwards) were built of Rajnagar Marble.</p><p>The low water absorption, high bulk density and high compressive, shearing and tensile strength of the Rajnagar Marble, and its &#8216;blockability&#8217; made it technically suitable for monuments that have sustained for five centuries or more, with no signs of weathering and discoloration. The Rajnagar Marble entered the global market in the later 20<sup>th</sup> century with its export to various countries including the Middle East and Japan. At present, it is extensively used in building and handicraft industry and is also famous for contemporary artworks. In light of these variety of applications of the Rajnagar Marble, we propose &#8216;Rajnagar Marble&#8217; for the designation of &#8216;<strong>Global Heritage Stone Resource</strong>&#8217;.</p>
<p>Rajnagar Marble, occurring around Rajnagar and Kankroli towns in Rajsamand district of s... more <p>Rajnagar Marble, occurring around Rajnagar and Kankroli towns in Rajsamand district of south-central Rajasthan make up the largest marble deposits in India. Rajnagar Marble belongs to late Paleoproterozoic Aravalli Supergroup.&#160; It is mostly white, coarse-grained and compact dolomitic marble. Mining is currently being carried out at several, small to medium-sized, open quarries using both conventional and mechanized operations. Although the Rajnagar Marble has been extensively used in archaeological monuments for centuries, it received recognition since the construction of spectacularly carved embankment (Nau-Chowky) of the Lake Rajsamand built during the period 1662-1676 CE. Its use has been recorded in the 8<sup>th</sup> century Eklingji Temple and numerous other temples in Udaipur and vicinity. Besides temples, embankments, step-well constructions, Rajnagar Marble was preferred for carving of idols of various Hindu deities, including the famous 12<sup>th</sup> century Palasma 7-horse drawn chariot Sun idol with nine planets revolving around it. But use of this Dev-Patthar (God's Stone), was avoided for flooring and private dwellings of humans in keeping with the Hindu mythological beliefs. Hence for the residential buildings, Rajnagar Marble was popularly used as a unique ground-in-hand-mill-and-sieved-through-muslin-sieve marble powder-lime paste (~100-micron size) to give the walls, pillars, lanterns, or even floors the "marble-finish". An intangible heritage process typical and unique of the erstwhile Rajputana. &#160;Most palaces and havelies of Mewar area, including the five palaces of Udaipur namely, the City Palace Complex, Jagniwas (now the Taj Lake Palace Hotel), Jag Mandir, Lakshmi Vilas Palace and the Sajjangarh (Monsoon Palace) were all built partly in Rajnagar Marble stone, but mostly with marble powder-lime paste finish on lime-sand-quartzite masonry works. &#160;Numerous architectural sites such as Moti Mahal, embankments of Fateh Sagar Lake and Rajsamand Lake, Eklingji Temple, Jagdish Temple, Saheliyon-ki-Badi, cenotaphs of the Royal family members at Ayad (1620 CE onwards) were built of Rajnagar Marble.</p><p>The low water absorption, high bulk density and high compressive, shearing and tensile strength of the Rajnagar Marble, and its &#8216;blockability&#8217; made it technically suitable for monuments that have sustained for five centuries or more, with no signs of weathering and discoloration. The Rajnagar Marble entered the global market in the later 20<sup>th</sup> century with its export to various countries including the Middle East and Japan. At present, it is extensively used in building and handicraft industry and is also famous for contemporary artworks. In light of these variety of applications of the Rajnagar Marble, we propose &#8216;Rajnagar Marble&#8217; for the designation of &#8216;<strong>Global Heritage Stone Resource</strong>&#8217;.</p>
The ‘Alwar Quartzite’ has been extensively used in several stone-built monuments in Delhi (capita... more The ‘Alwar Quartzite’ has been extensively used in several stone-built monuments in Delhi (capital city of India) and states of North India. Several monuments of Delhi in particular, built during the ‘pre-Sultanate period’ (eleventh century or earlier) to the British Raj in the late nineteenth century, have extensively utilised the Alwar Quartzite as the main building material. The use of the Alwar Quartzite as rubble masonry in the fortification of famous forts, such as the Purana Qila and the Tughlaqabad Fort, to the ashlar masonry in the British Barracks is more than evident in Delhi. During the Islamic rule, the locally available Alwar Quartzite was commonly used for the construction of tombs, mosques, victory towers, etc. within the precincts of Qutb Complex and Humayun’s Tomb Complex, the well-known UNESCO World Heritage sites, and also in the form of scattered monuments in the erstwhile city of Delhi. The Alwar Quartzite was an equally preferred building material by several Hindu rulers for the fortification of Amer, Jaigarh, Nahargarh, Bhangarh, Moti Dungri and several other forts in the north-eastern part of the Rajasthan State. Local availability and abundant supply of the Alwar Quartzite, coupled with its strength and durability, have been the prime consideration in making it an automatic choice as the main masonry stone in several architectural monuments in North India through disparate cultures and kingdoms. The Alwar Quartzite is a compact and almost monomineralic rock, mainly comprising recrystallised quartz. It is resistant to physico-chemical weathering and has high shear and compressive strength and has remained almost undamaged for more than 1000 years, as seen in several monuments. Such characteristics of this unique building material, used in North India in different time frames and by different cultural groups, render it a likely candidate for the designation of a GHSR from India.
The yellow-colored limestone of Jaisalmer, famous as golden stone, has been extensively used in t... more The yellow-colored limestone of Jaisalmer, famous as golden stone, has been extensively used in the architectonic heritage of western India. The architectural heritage, built of this limestone, imparts an exquisite character to Jaisalmer city, which is popularly known as “The Golden City.” The Jaisalmer Fort built using Jaisalmer Limestone, locally referred to as “ Sonar Qila ” meaning “Golden Fort,” has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Jaisalmer is renowned for architecturally distinctive Jaisalmer Fort, Palace of Maharawal (now Fort Palace Museum), Jain and Lodurva temples, Nathmalji-ki-Haveli, Patwon ki Haveli, Salim Singh ki Haveli, and Bada Bag cenotaphs (burial monuments, locally known as chhatris ) constructed using the yellow Jaisalmer Limestone. Besides being used as a major building material, it has found profound usage in inlay work done in many religious places, forts, palaces, and mausoleums built during the reign of Mughals in India from sixteenth century onwards. The Jaisalmer Limestone, also known as yellow limestone, is well exposed around Jaisalmer city. It belongs to the Jaisalmer Formation of the Jurassic age. The Jaisalmer Limestone is hard and compact with low porosity, which has been classified as oolitic to bioclastic grainstone, packstone to wackestone. The yellow limestone, which is the most sought-after variety due to its pleasing color, texture, and aesthetics, is being quarried around the city of Jaisalmer for decades. The yellow limestone is commonly traded as “Yellow Marble.” The common use of the Jaisalmer Limestone includes floor tiles, wall claddings, counter tops, and most importantly as an ornamental stone. The Jaisalmer Limestone is exported to various countries across the Middle East and Europe in the form of slabs, tiles, and handicrafts. The Golden Jaisalmer Limestone’s wide usage in the heritage monuments in India deserves to be promoted on a global scenario. Thus, we propose it to be designated as the “Global Heritage Stone Resource” from India.
Jodhpur Sandstone, used extensively in several regional heritage buildings in north-western India... more Jodhpur Sandstone, used extensively in several regional heritage buildings in north-western India, geologically belongs to the Ediacaran-Cambrian age Marwar Supergroup. The Marwar Supergroup has been subdivided into Jodhpur (arenaceous facies), Bilara (carbonate facies) and Nagaur (argillaceous facies) groups (in stratigraphically ascending order). The brown, red, pink and creamish pink varieties of Jodhpur Group Sandstone are the most preferred dimension stone varieties, excavated from several open quarries in the region between Jodhpur and Satrava in western part of Rajasthan State, NW India. The region has an old quarrying history, dating back to the use of sandstone in the fourth century temples in Mandor, eighth century Osian Temple Complex (also called as Khajuraho of Rajasthan for its intricate carvings in sandstone) and several historic monuments, such as Mandore Fort, Royal Tombs at Mandore Garden, Mehrangarh Fort, Clock Tower, Jaswant Thada, Umaid Bhawan Palace, etc. Several present day institutions/corporate houses of national eminence, such as the Rajasthan High Court, Indian Institute of Technology (Jodhpur), All India Institute of Medical Sciences (Jodhpur), Umaid Heritage Residential Complex and Hotel Radisson (Jodhpur) etc. exemplify continued use of Jodhpur Sandstone in contemporary times. Buildings of the Karachi Municipal Corporation and Karachi Chamber of Commerce and Industry in southern Pakistan attest to the international usage of Jodhpur Sandstone. The Jodhpur Sandstone can be classified as ‘quartz arenite’ comprising rounded to sub-rounded quartz grains with ferruginous cement. Its mature, mineralogy and moderate to high endurance, resistance to weathering, etc., render it suitable for intricate carving. Owing to these characteristics and its aesthetic appeal, it is used in a range of artefacts and handicrafts within India and overseas. The Jodhpur Sandstone fulfils the criteria laid down by the Heritage Stone Sub-commission for designation as a Global Heritage Stone Resource and we propose a case for its consideration and accreditation as a Global Heritage Stone Resource from India.
The Heritage Stone Subcommission (HSS), under the aegis of the International Union of Geological ... more The Heritage Stone Subcommission (HSS), under the aegis of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), accords “Global Heritage Stone Resource” status to stones used in architectural heritage sites that are particularly important for local cultures and traditions. The Proterozoic slates of Himachal Pradesh have been used extensively in the architectural heritage of the Himalayan region of India. The deposits, occurring in Himachal Pradesh’s Chamba, Kangra, Mandi, Kullu, Shimla, Sirmaur, Kinnuar, and Solan districts, have been quarried as a building material since the distant past for use in roofing, paving, fencing, and flooring. It can be found in prominent historic buildings such as the Shimla Town Hall Building, the Gaiety Theatre, and the Bandstand (Shimla); the Sarahan Palace and Bhimakali Temple (Sarahan); and the Pragpur heritage village and the temples of Champavati and Laxmi Narayan (Chamba), to name just a few. The crudely foliated varieties are employed locally as masonry in traditional Kath-Khuni architecture (cator-and-cribbage buildings using stone and local wood).
This is a 'preproof' accepted article for Mineralogical Magazine. This version may be subject to ... more This is a 'preproof' accepted article for Mineralogical Magazine. This version may be subject to change during the production process.
<p>Rajnagar Marble, occurring around Rajnagar and Kankroli towns in Rajsamand district of s... more <p>Rajnagar Marble, occurring around Rajnagar and Kankroli towns in Rajsamand district of south-central Rajasthan make up the largest marble deposits in India. Rajnagar Marble belongs to late Paleoproterozoic Aravalli Supergroup.&#160; It is mostly white, coarse-grained and compact dolomitic marble. Mining is currently being carried out at several, small to medium-sized, open quarries using both conventional and mechanized operations. Although the Rajnagar Marble has been extensively used in archaeological monuments for centuries, it received recognition since the construction of spectacularly carved embankment (Nau-Chowky) of the Lake Rajsamand built during the period 1662-1676 CE. Its use has been recorded in the 8<sup>th</sup> century Eklingji Temple and numerous other temples in Udaipur and vicinity. Besides temples, embankments, step-well constructions, Rajnagar Marble was preferred for carving of idols of various Hindu deities, including the famous 12<sup>th</sup> century Palasma 7-horse drawn chariot Sun idol with nine planets revolving around it. But use of this Dev-Patthar (God's Stone), was avoided for flooring and private dwellings of humans in keeping with the Hindu mythological beliefs. Hence for the residential buildings, Rajnagar Marble was popularly used as a unique ground-in-hand-mill-and-sieved-through-muslin-sieve marble powder-lime paste (~100-micron size) to give the walls, pillars, lanterns, or even floors the "marble-finish". An intangible heritage process typical and unique of the erstwhile Rajputana. &#160;Most palaces and havelies of Mewar area, including the five palaces of Udaipur namely, the City Palace Complex, Jagniwas (now the Taj Lake Palace Hotel), Jag Mandir, Lakshmi Vilas Palace and the Sajjangarh (Monsoon Palace) were all built partly in Rajnagar Marble stone, but mostly with marble powder-lime paste finish on lime-sand-quartzite masonry works. &#160;Numerous architectural sites such as Moti Mahal, embankments of Fateh Sagar Lake and Rajsamand Lake, Eklingji Temple, Jagdish Temple, Saheliyon-ki-Badi, cenotaphs of the Royal family members at Ayad (1620 CE onwards) were built of Rajnagar Marble.</p><p>The low water absorption, high bulk density and high compressive, shearing and tensile strength of the Rajnagar Marble, and its &#8216;blockability&#8217; made it technically suitable for monuments that have sustained for five centuries or more, with no signs of weathering and discoloration. The Rajnagar Marble entered the global market in the later 20<sup>th</sup> century with its export to various countries including the Middle East and Japan. At present, it is extensively used in building and handicraft industry and is also famous for contemporary artworks. In light of these variety of applications of the Rajnagar Marble, we propose &#8216;Rajnagar Marble&#8217; for the designation of &#8216;<strong>Global Heritage Stone Resource</strong>&#8217;.</p>
<p>Rajnagar Marble, occurring around Rajnagar and Kankroli towns in Rajsamand district of s... more <p>Rajnagar Marble, occurring around Rajnagar and Kankroli towns in Rajsamand district of south-central Rajasthan make up the largest marble deposits in India. Rajnagar Marble belongs to late Paleoproterozoic Aravalli Supergroup.&#160; It is mostly white, coarse-grained and compact dolomitic marble. Mining is currently being carried out at several, small to medium-sized, open quarries using both conventional and mechanized operations. Although the Rajnagar Marble has been extensively used in archaeological monuments for centuries, it received recognition since the construction of spectacularly carved embankment (Nau-Chowky) of the Lake Rajsamand built during the period 1662-1676 CE. Its use has been recorded in the 8<sup>th</sup> century Eklingji Temple and numerous other temples in Udaipur and vicinity. Besides temples, embankments, step-well constructions, Rajnagar Marble was preferred for carving of idols of various Hindu deities, including the famous 12<sup>th</sup> century Palasma 7-horse drawn chariot Sun idol with nine planets revolving around it. But use of this Dev-Patthar (God's Stone), was avoided for flooring and private dwellings of humans in keeping with the Hindu mythological beliefs. Hence for the residential buildings, Rajnagar Marble was popularly used as a unique ground-in-hand-mill-and-sieved-through-muslin-sieve marble powder-lime paste (~100-micron size) to give the walls, pillars, lanterns, or even floors the "marble-finish". An intangible heritage process typical and unique of the erstwhile Rajputana. &#160;Most palaces and havelies of Mewar area, including the five palaces of Udaipur namely, the City Palace Complex, Jagniwas (now the Taj Lake Palace Hotel), Jag Mandir, Lakshmi Vilas Palace and the Sajjangarh (Monsoon Palace) were all built partly in Rajnagar Marble stone, but mostly with marble powder-lime paste finish on lime-sand-quartzite masonry works. &#160;Numerous architectural sites such as Moti Mahal, embankments of Fateh Sagar Lake and Rajsamand Lake, Eklingji Temple, Jagdish Temple, Saheliyon-ki-Badi, cenotaphs of the Royal family members at Ayad (1620 CE onwards) were built of Rajnagar Marble.</p><p>The low water absorption, high bulk density and high compressive, shearing and tensile strength of the Rajnagar Marble, and its &#8216;blockability&#8217; made it technically suitable for monuments that have sustained for five centuries or more, with no signs of weathering and discoloration. The Rajnagar Marble entered the global market in the later 20<sup>th</sup> century with its export to various countries including the Middle East and Japan. At present, it is extensively used in building and handicraft industry and is also famous for contemporary artworks. In light of these variety of applications of the Rajnagar Marble, we propose &#8216;Rajnagar Marble&#8217; for the designation of &#8216;<strong>Global Heritage Stone Resource</strong>&#8217;.</p>
The ‘Alwar Quartzite’ has been extensively used in several stone-built monuments in Delhi (capita... more The ‘Alwar Quartzite’ has been extensively used in several stone-built monuments in Delhi (capital city of India) and states of North India. Several monuments of Delhi in particular, built during the ‘pre-Sultanate period’ (eleventh century or earlier) to the British Raj in the late nineteenth century, have extensively utilised the Alwar Quartzite as the main building material. The use of the Alwar Quartzite as rubble masonry in the fortification of famous forts, such as the Purana Qila and the Tughlaqabad Fort, to the ashlar masonry in the British Barracks is more than evident in Delhi. During the Islamic rule, the locally available Alwar Quartzite was commonly used for the construction of tombs, mosques, victory towers, etc. within the precincts of Qutb Complex and Humayun’s Tomb Complex, the well-known UNESCO World Heritage sites, and also in the form of scattered monuments in the erstwhile city of Delhi. The Alwar Quartzite was an equally preferred building material by several Hindu rulers for the fortification of Amer, Jaigarh, Nahargarh, Bhangarh, Moti Dungri and several other forts in the north-eastern part of the Rajasthan State. Local availability and abundant supply of the Alwar Quartzite, coupled with its strength and durability, have been the prime consideration in making it an automatic choice as the main masonry stone in several architectural monuments in North India through disparate cultures and kingdoms. The Alwar Quartzite is a compact and almost monomineralic rock, mainly comprising recrystallised quartz. It is resistant to physico-chemical weathering and has high shear and compressive strength and has remained almost undamaged for more than 1000 years, as seen in several monuments. Such characteristics of this unique building material, used in North India in different time frames and by different cultural groups, render it a likely candidate for the designation of a GHSR from India.
The yellow-colored limestone of Jaisalmer, famous as golden stone, has been extensively used in t... more The yellow-colored limestone of Jaisalmer, famous as golden stone, has been extensively used in the architectonic heritage of western India. The architectural heritage, built of this limestone, imparts an exquisite character to Jaisalmer city, which is popularly known as “The Golden City.” The Jaisalmer Fort built using Jaisalmer Limestone, locally referred to as “ Sonar Qila ” meaning “Golden Fort,” has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Jaisalmer is renowned for architecturally distinctive Jaisalmer Fort, Palace of Maharawal (now Fort Palace Museum), Jain and Lodurva temples, Nathmalji-ki-Haveli, Patwon ki Haveli, Salim Singh ki Haveli, and Bada Bag cenotaphs (burial monuments, locally known as chhatris ) constructed using the yellow Jaisalmer Limestone. Besides being used as a major building material, it has found profound usage in inlay work done in many religious places, forts, palaces, and mausoleums built during the reign of Mughals in India from sixteenth century onwards. The Jaisalmer Limestone, also known as yellow limestone, is well exposed around Jaisalmer city. It belongs to the Jaisalmer Formation of the Jurassic age. The Jaisalmer Limestone is hard and compact with low porosity, which has been classified as oolitic to bioclastic grainstone, packstone to wackestone. The yellow limestone, which is the most sought-after variety due to its pleasing color, texture, and aesthetics, is being quarried around the city of Jaisalmer for decades. The yellow limestone is commonly traded as “Yellow Marble.” The common use of the Jaisalmer Limestone includes floor tiles, wall claddings, counter tops, and most importantly as an ornamental stone. The Jaisalmer Limestone is exported to various countries across the Middle East and Europe in the form of slabs, tiles, and handicrafts. The Golden Jaisalmer Limestone’s wide usage in the heritage monuments in India deserves to be promoted on a global scenario. Thus, we propose it to be designated as the “Global Heritage Stone Resource” from India.
Jodhpur Sandstone, used extensively in several regional heritage buildings in north-western India... more Jodhpur Sandstone, used extensively in several regional heritage buildings in north-western India, geologically belongs to the Ediacaran-Cambrian age Marwar Supergroup. The Marwar Supergroup has been subdivided into Jodhpur (arenaceous facies), Bilara (carbonate facies) and Nagaur (argillaceous facies) groups (in stratigraphically ascending order). The brown, red, pink and creamish pink varieties of Jodhpur Group Sandstone are the most preferred dimension stone varieties, excavated from several open quarries in the region between Jodhpur and Satrava in western part of Rajasthan State, NW India. The region has an old quarrying history, dating back to the use of sandstone in the fourth century temples in Mandor, eighth century Osian Temple Complex (also called as Khajuraho of Rajasthan for its intricate carvings in sandstone) and several historic monuments, such as Mandore Fort, Royal Tombs at Mandore Garden, Mehrangarh Fort, Clock Tower, Jaswant Thada, Umaid Bhawan Palace, etc. Several present day institutions/corporate houses of national eminence, such as the Rajasthan High Court, Indian Institute of Technology (Jodhpur), All India Institute of Medical Sciences (Jodhpur), Umaid Heritage Residential Complex and Hotel Radisson (Jodhpur) etc. exemplify continued use of Jodhpur Sandstone in contemporary times. Buildings of the Karachi Municipal Corporation and Karachi Chamber of Commerce and Industry in southern Pakistan attest to the international usage of Jodhpur Sandstone. The Jodhpur Sandstone can be classified as ‘quartz arenite’ comprising rounded to sub-rounded quartz grains with ferruginous cement. Its mature, mineralogy and moderate to high endurance, resistance to weathering, etc., render it suitable for intricate carving. Owing to these characteristics and its aesthetic appeal, it is used in a range of artefacts and handicrafts within India and overseas. The Jodhpur Sandstone fulfils the criteria laid down by the Heritage Stone Sub-commission for designation as a Global Heritage Stone Resource and we propose a case for its consideration and accreditation as a Global Heritage Stone Resource from India.
The Heritage Stone Subcommission (HSS), under the aegis of the International Union of Geological ... more The Heritage Stone Subcommission (HSS), under the aegis of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), accords “Global Heritage Stone Resource” status to stones used in architectural heritage sites that are particularly important for local cultures and traditions. The Proterozoic slates of Himachal Pradesh have been used extensively in the architectural heritage of the Himalayan region of India. The deposits, occurring in Himachal Pradesh’s Chamba, Kangra, Mandi, Kullu, Shimla, Sirmaur, Kinnuar, and Solan districts, have been quarried as a building material since the distant past for use in roofing, paving, fencing, and flooring. It can be found in prominent historic buildings such as the Shimla Town Hall Building, the Gaiety Theatre, and the Bandstand (Shimla); the Sarahan Palace and Bhimakali Temple (Sarahan); and the Pragpur heritage village and the temples of Champavati and Laxmi Narayan (Chamba), to name just a few. The crudely foliated varieties are employed locally as masonry in traditional Kath-Khuni architecture (cator-and-cribbage buildings using stone and local wood).
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