Personality variables are associated with educational attainment and socioeconomic outcomes. In t... more Personality variables are associated with educational attainment and socioeconomic outcomes. In this study we incorporated a polygenic score derived from the largest GWAS of educational attainment to date (Lee et al., 2018) into the Interactionist Model of R. Conger and colleagues (2020) that describes the influence of socioeconomic factors on individual development. The inclusion of a polygenic score predictive of educational attainment (PS-Edu) into this model, and the use of the multi-generation, longitudinal Family Transitions Project (FTP) provides a unique opportunity to investigate genetic and environmental influences on the development of negative personality traits, and educational and economic outcomes. The FTP is a three-generation sample. This study utilized data from the first generation (G1; mean age 40 at initiation of the FTP) and second generation (G2; assessed at mean ages 18 and 30). Participants are approximately 50% female, 99% of European ancestry, primarily from lower to middle class SES. PS-Edu was significantly correlated with educational attainment in both generations of the FTP, accounting for 4.1% to 6.7% of the variance. Findings confirm that PS-Edu is a complex genetic index that is correlated with all of the socioeconomic constructs in the model. Results suggest potential geneenvironment correlation or common genetic influences underlie associations among parenting investments, negative personality traits and educational attainment. Genetic variance captured by PS-Edu was mediated substantially through G1 parental investments. Although study limitations warrant cautious interpretation, we demonstrate the promise of including polygenic scores in developmental models to better understand genetic and environmental influences on human development.
This special section focuses on the life-course development of positive and negative personality ... more This special section focuses on the life-course development of positive and negative personality traits and their consequences. Specifically, we pose four research questions inspired by the special section in Developmental Psychology on Conscientiousness (Reiss, Eccles, & Nielsen, 2014). The current set of articles extends the examination of the positive effects of Conscientiousness on individual well-being by also considering the potentially disruptive effects of specific negative personality traits (alienation and low sense of well-being). Our four questions are as follows. Question 1: what are the correlates of Conscientiousness and negative personality traits in terms of family processes? Question 2: to what degree do Conscientiousness and negative traits operate in a transactional process with the social and economic environment to amplify or suppress these characteristics? Question 3: how do individual personality characteristics affect specific behaviors and interactions with...
The Family Stress Model (FSM) was utilized to examine the effects of economic pressure on materna... more The Family Stress Model (FSM) was utilized to examine the effects of economic pressure on maternal depressive symptoms, couple conflict, and mother harsh parenting during adolescence, on offspring depressive symptoms in adulthood. Prospective longitudinal data was analyzed across three developmental time points which included 451 mothers and their adolescent. Economic pressure and mother depressive symptoms were assessed during early adolescence, couple conflict and mother harsh parenting were assessed during middle to late adolescence, and offspring depressive symptoms were assessed in adulthood. Findings were in support of pathways in the FSM in that economic pressure was related to maternal depressive symptoms, which were associated with couple conflict, that in turn predicted mother harsh parenting during adolescence, and mother harsh parenting was associated with offspring depressive symptoms in adulthood.
The current study examined the association between positive couple interaction and child social c... more The current study examined the association between positive couple interaction and child social competence as mediated through positive parenting and parent-child attachment security. Prospective, longitudinal data came from 209 mothers, fathers, and their biological child. Information regarding observed positive couple interaction, observed positive parenting, and parent-child attachment security were assessed when the child was 2 to 4 years old, and child social competence was assessed at 5 years old. Mothers and fathers were analyzed separately in the model. Results indicated that for both mothers and fathers, positive couple interaction was indirectly associated with child social competence through positive parenting and parent-child attachment. These pathways remained statistically significant even after child social competence at age 2 to 4 was taken into account. Results suggest that couple interaction spills over into parenting which impacts parent-child attachment, which is associated with positive child developmental outcomes.
Objectives The current study examined how economic pressure impacts parental positivity and posit... more Objectives The current study examined how economic pressure impacts parental positivity and positive parenting separately for mothers and fathers, as well as how positivity and parenting impact child social competence. Methods This study included 207 mothers, fathers, and their first-born child from toddlerhood through the preschool years. This study employed an Actor-Partner Interdependence Model which was developed to handle dyadic relationships to investigate the association between economic pressure, parental positivity, and positive parenting, separately for mother and father and the interdependent associations between them. Results Results showed that economic pressure when the child was age 2 (Time 1) was negatively associated with maternal and paternal positivity and father positive parenting when the child was 3-4 years old (Time 2). Maternal positivity was associated with paternal positivity and mother positive parenting was associated with father positive parenting. In addition, maternal positivity was associated with mother positive parenting while paternal positivity was not significantly related to father positive parenting at Time 2. Parental positivity and positive parenting at Time 2 were both associated with child social competence at age 5 (Time 3), even after controlling for child social competence at age 2 (Time 1). Conclusions The current results suggest that both maternal and paternal positivity and positive parenting are important protective factors for young children's social competence even under times of economic adversity.
Exposure to parental alcoholism can inhibit a child’s ability to become a successfully functionin... more Exposure to parental alcoholism can inhibit a child’s ability to become a successfully functioning young adult. Based on qualitative interviews, this study provides a deeper understanding of how those parent–adolescent relationships are associated with risky internalizing and externalizing behaviors. This qualitative study explores the lives of 13 young adult children of alcoholics (ACOAs) and provides a unique perspective through an adaptive developmental approach by evaluating emerging adults who were ACOAs and successfully functioning. Compelling findings emerged with respect to how young adults define alcoholism and being a child of alcoholism and how the parent–adolescent relationship adapts in the unstable environment associated with family alcoholism. Salient findings revealed that when emotional and physical detachment from a parent’s alcoholic behaviors in addition to an acceptance that those behaviors are not the adolescent’s responsibility, individuals gained better contr...
Historische Sozialforschung Historical Social Research Zentrum Fur Historische Sozialforschung Koln in Zusammenarbeit Mit Dem Informationszentrum Sozialwissenschaften Bonn, 2010
»Ökonomische Belastungen, elterliche Persönlichkeit und Entwicklung der Kinder: Eine interaktioni... more »Ökonomische Belastungen, elterliche Persönlichkeit und Entwicklung der Kinder: Eine interaktionistische Analyse«. The current economic downturn in the U.S. and around the world has refocused attention on the processes through which families and children are affected by economic hardship. This study examines the response to economic pressure of a cohort of youth first studied 20 years ago as adolescents and now grown to adulthood. A total of 271 of the original G2 adolescents (M age = 25.6 years) participated in the study with their young child (G3, M age = 2.31 years at the first time of assessment) and the child's other parent in 81% of the cases. Data analyses were guided by the interactionist model which proposed that positive G2 personality attributes during adolescence would predict lower economic pressure during adulthood and would diminish the negative family processes related to economic pressure expected to disrupt competent G3 development. The findings were consistent with this social selection aspect of the interactionist model. The model also predicted that economic pressure and other aspects of the related family stress process would affect G3 development net of earlier G2 personality. This social causation aspect of the interactionist model also received support. The findings suggest that the relationship between economic conditions and child development reflect a dynamic process of selection and causation that plays out over time and generations.
Parent reports of temperament are used to study many important topics in child development, such ... more Parent reports of temperament are used to study many important topics in child development, such as whether boys and girls differ in their levels of emotional reactivity and self-regulation. However, questions regarding measurement equivalence in parental reports of temperament are largely unexplored, despite the fact that this issue is critical for drawing the correct conclusions from mean-level comparisons. In the current study, measurement invariance across boys and girls (as targets), and mothers and fathers (as informants), was investigated in the Child Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ; Rothbart et al., 2001) using a sample of children ranging in age from 3 to 7 years (N = 605). Several instances of noninvariance were identified across both girls and boys, and mothers and fathers. An evaluation of effect size indices suggests that the practical impact of this noninvariance ranges from negligible to moderate. All told, this study illustrates the importance of taking a psychometricall...
This study investigated whether corporal punishment when the child was two years old predicted ch... more This study investigated whether corporal punishment when the child was two years old predicted child externalizing behaviors a year later, and whether or not this association was moderated by parents' observed behavior towards their child. Data came from 218 couples and their first born child. The frequency of fathers' corporal punishment when the child was two years old predicted child externalizing behaviors a year later, while controlling for initial levels of child externalizing behaviors. Also, observed positive and harsh parenting moderated the relationship between corporal punishment and child externalizing behaviors. These results highlight the importance of continuing to examine the effects of a commonly used form of discipline (i.e., corporal punishment) and the parental climate in which it is used. Keywords corporal punishment; externalizing behavior; moderation; observed behavior; parenting Controversy continues regarding the appropriateness and usefulness of corporal punishment. Twenty-four countries have institutionalized no-spanking laws and other countries are in the process of banning corporal punishment (Zolotor & Puzia, 2010). However, in the United States most parents continue to use corporal punishment to discipline their children (MacKenzie, Nicklas, Brooks-Gunn, & Waldfogel, 2011;). The social learning theory suggests that when parents use aggressive forms of discipline, children learn through modeling to be more aggressive themselves (Gámez-Guadix, Straus, & Hershberger, 2011). Indeed, children who receive physical punishment by their parents may learn to use similar tactics to control their environment (Graziano, 1994) and corporal punishment may change the way children perceive social information creating a tendency to access aggressive
Although research supports the influence of parents and peers on adolescent risky behavior, less ... more Although research supports the influence of parents and peers on adolescent risky behavior, less is known about mechanisms proposed to explain this relation. This study examined the influence of adolescent attitudes and intentions about such behaviors. Prospective, longitudinal data came from rural youth who participated throughout adolescence (n= 451). Observed harsh parenting and relationship with deviant peers was assessed in early adolescence, attitudes and intentions were measured during middle adolescence, and risky behavior was assessed in late adolescence. Results indicated that parenting and deviant peers was related to engagement in tobacco use, alcohol use, and risky sexual behaviors. Moreover, attitudes and intentions mediated this relationship even after parent use and adolescent early involvement in these behaviors were taken into account. Adolescence is a period of experimentation with a variety of socially proscribed activities such as tobacco use, alcohol use, and engagement in risky sexual behaviors (Conger, Rueter, & Conger, 1994). Indeed, while such experimentation may be viewed as a normative part of adolescence (Muuss & Porton, 1998), studies show that youth who engage in risky behaviors are at increased risk of long-term health issues as well as problems in the areas of academics, work disruptions, and overall family life (Jessor, 1998; Crosnoe & Johnson, 2011). For example, early alcohol use places adolescents at greater risk for adult alcohol use disorders (Englund, Egeland, Oliva, & Collins, 2008) and early sexual initiation can lead to unplanned pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases (Kincaid, Jones, Sterrett, & McKee, 2012). Therefore, it is important to understand factors that may influence adolescent substance use and engagement in risky sexual behavior. Studies show that both parents and peers may effect an adolescent's likelihood of engaging in such behaviors (Elkington,
We tested the differential susceptibility hypothesis with respect to connections between interact... more We tested the differential susceptibility hypothesis with respect to connections between interactions in the family of origin and subsequent behaviors with romantic partners. Focal or target participants (G2) in an ongoing longitudinal study (A' = 352) were observed interacting with their parents (Gl) during adolescence and again with their romantic partners in adulthood. Independent observers rated positive engagement and hostility by Gl and G2 during structured interaction tasks. We created an index for hypothesized genetic plasticity by summing G2's allelic variation for polymorphisms in 5 genes (serotonin transporter gene [linked polymorphism], 5-HTT; ankyrin repeat and kinase domain containing 1 gene/dopamine receptor D2 gene, ANKK1/DRD2; dopamine receptor D4 gene, DRD4\ dopamine active transporter gene, DAT; and catechol-0-methyltransferase gene, COMT). Consistent with the differential susceptibility hypothesis, G2s exposed to more hostile and positively engaged parenting behaviors during adolescence were more hostile or positively engaged toward a romantic partner if they had higher scores on the genetic plasticity index. In short, genetic factors moderated the connection between earlier experiences in the family of origin and future romantic relationship behaviors, for better and for worse.
Purpose: We examined rural-urban differences in cumulative risk for youth substance use. A recent... more Purpose: We examined rural-urban differences in cumulative risk for youth substance use. A recent report [National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (CASA) 2000] found that the ruralurban distribution of substance use and known risk factors for substance use differed; in many cases rural youth showed higher levels of use, as well as higher levels of risk factors. The current investigation, while not directly examining substance use, further examined rural-urban differences in the distribution of risk factors for youth substance use, based on information from parent reports. Method: Study 1 data were collected from a random sample of Midwestern parents (n = 339) with a young adolescent between the ages of 11 and 13 years. Study 2 data were collected from a second sample of Midwestern parents (n = 593). Results: Analyses of rural-urban comparisons demonstrated higher levels of cumulative risk among rural youth. An evaluation of the sensitivity of the analysis to rural-urban classification schemes indicated that the findings were robust, but that there was some minor variation in rural-urban differences by classification scheme. Implications: Results contribute to an explanation of findings from earlier reports of rural-urban differences in substance use, and suggest directions for future research on rural-urban distributions of youth risk factors.
The intergenerational transmission of violence directed toward intimate partners has been documen... more The intergenerational transmission of violence directed toward intimate partners has been documented for the past three decades. Overall, the literature shows that violence in the family of origin leads to violence in the family of destination. However, this predominately cross-sectional or retrospective literature is limited by self-selection, endogeneity, and reporter biases as it has not been able to assess how individual and family behaviors simultaneously experienced during adolescence influence intimate partner violence throughout adulthood. The present study used data from the Iowa Youth and Families Project (IYFP; N = 392; 52 % Female), a multi-method, multitrait prospective approach, to overcome this limitation. We focused on psychological intimate partner violence in both emerging adulthood (19-23 years) and adulthood (27-31 years), and include self and partner ratings of violence as well as observational data in a sample of rural non-Hispanic white families. Controlling for a host of individual risk factors as well as interparental psychological violence from adolescence (14-15 years), the results show that exposure to parentto-child psychological violence during adolescence is a key predictor of intimate partner violence throughout adulthood. In addition, negative emotionality and the number of sexual partners in adolescence predicted intimate partner violence in both emerging adulthood and adulthood. Exposure to family stress was associated positively with intimate partner violence in adulthood but not in emerging adulthood, whereas academic difficulties were found to increase violence in emerging adulthood only. Unlike previous research, results did not support a direct effect of interparental psychological violence on psychological violence in the next generation. Gender differences were found only in emerging adulthood. Implications of these findings are discussed in light of the current literature and future directions.
Despite high rates of grandmother involvement with young grandchildren, very little research has ... more Despite high rates of grandmother involvement with young grandchildren, very little research has examined the associations between non-residential grandmother involvement and grandchild social adjustment. The present study draws 127 families enrolled in the Family Transitions Project to consider the degree to which mother-reported maternal grandmother involvement buffers 3-and 4year old grandchildren from economic, parenting, and child temperamental risks for reduced social competence and elevated externalizing behaviors. Findings indicate that higher levels of motherreported grandmother involvement reduced the negative association between observed grandchild negative emotional reactivity and social competence. Further, high levels of mother-reported grandmother involvement protected grandchildren from the positive association between observed harsh mother parenting and grandchild externalizing behaviors. These findings underscore the relevance of moving beyond the nuclear family to understand factors linked to social adjustment during early childhood.
The present study considered the intergenerational consequences of experiencing socioeconomic dis... more The present study considered the intergenerational consequences of experiencing socioeconomic disadvantage within the family of origin. Specifically, the influence of socioeconomic disadvantage experienced during adolescence on the timing of parenthood as well as the association between early parenthood and risk for harsh parenting and emerging child problem behavior was evaluated. Participants included 154 3-generation families, followed prospectively over a 12-year period. Results indicated that exposure to poverty during adolescence and not parents' (G1) education predicted an earlier age of parenthood in the second generation (G2). Younger G2 parents were observed to be harsher during interactions with their own 2-year old child (G3) and harsh parenting predicted increases in G3 children's externalizing problems from age 2 to age 3. Finally, G3 children's externalizing behavior measured at age 3 predicted increases in harsh parenting from age 3 to 4, suggesting that G3 children's behavior may exacerbate the longitudinal effects of socioeconomic disadvantage. Although children from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds are over identified in terms of rates of antisocial behaviors and emotional problems (e.g., McLoyd, 1998), little research has considered the consequences of economic disadvantage across multiple generations. Despite the lack of empirical research, the consequences of socioeconomic disadvantage likely extend beyond the immediate family to affect subsequent generations of family members (e.g., Brooks-Gunn & Duncan, 1997). For instance, adolescents residing in socioeconomically disadvantaged homes seem to be at increased risk for dropping out of school, engaging in risk-taking behavior, and entering parenthood at an early age (Hardy, et al., 1998; Pears, et al., 2005). The relationship between socioeconomic disadvantage in the family of origin and early parenthood is especially noteworthy inasmuch as an earlier age at first birth is associated with more hostile and less nurturing behavior by parents (Conger, et al., 1984).
This study examined personality during adolescence as a predictor of later parenting of toddler-a... more This study examined personality during adolescence as a predictor of later parenting of toddler-aged offspring. On the basis of empirical research on the timing of parenthood and the interactionist model (Conger & Donnellan, 2007), we examined age at parenthood and family socioeconomic status (SES) as mediators of the relation between personality and parenting. Participants were 228 emerging adults from an ongoing longitudinal study of the transition to adulthood. Later entry into parenthood and higher SES accounted for the association between personality characteristics and lower levels of harsh parenting and higher levels of positive parenting. Consistent with the interactionist model, both personality characteristics and SES-linked variables were related to interpersonal processes in families. The findings suggest that promoting adaptive personality traits during childhood and adolescence may help delay early entry into parenthood, promote higher SES, and, indirectly, foster more positive parenting of young children.
This article reports two exploratory studies testing a model guided by a social interactional per... more This article reports two exploratory studies testing a model guided by a social interactional perspective, positing an inverse relation between the quality of parent-child interactions and adolescent problem behaviors. It addresses mixed findings in the literature related to gender differences. Study 1 uses cross-sectional survey data from midwestern parents with either a boy ( n = 377) or a girl ( n = 335) between 11 and 13 years of age. Study 2 data, used to replicate the Study 1 results, are collected from a cross-sectional survey sample of midwestern parents with either a boy ( n = 279) or a girl ( n = 269) in the same age group. Multisample latent variable structural equation modeling confirms the hypothesized inverse relationships in both studies. Also, there are no significant young adolescent gender differences in these relationships. The consistency of findings from both studies is discussed with respect to results from earlier research.
Background: There is evidence that seasonal variation in depressive symptoms is common in the pop... more Background: There is evidence that seasonal variation in depressive symptoms is common in the population. However, research is limited by a reliance on longterm retrospective methods. Methods: Seasonal patterns were tested in two samples of community participants recruited in separate prospective studies in the Midwestern (n = 556 males/females) and Pacific Northwestern (n = 206 males) United States. Participants completed self-report measures of depressive symptoms 10-19 times from ages 14-36 years (n = 8,316 person observations). These data were compared with local meteorological conditions (e.g., solar radiation) recorded across the 2 weeks prior to each self-report. Results: In within-subjects analyses, participants' depressive symptoms and the probability of clinically significant symptoms varied with the time of year, as hypothesized (highest in the weeks of early Winter; lowest in early Fall). However, effects sizes were modest and were not explained by recent sunlight or other meteorological conditions. Limitations: Samples were not nationally representative. Participants did not complete retrospective reports of seasonal depression or measures of current vegetative symptoms. Conclusions: Neither time of the year or recent seasonally linked meteorological conditions were powerful influences on depressive symptoms experienced by community populations in relevant geographic regions. Prior studies may have overestimated the prevalence and significance of seasonal variation in depressive symptoms for the general population.
Personality variables are associated with educational attainment and socioeconomic outcomes. In t... more Personality variables are associated with educational attainment and socioeconomic outcomes. In this study we incorporated a polygenic score derived from the largest GWAS of educational attainment to date (Lee et al., 2018) into the Interactionist Model of R. Conger and colleagues (2020) that describes the influence of socioeconomic factors on individual development. The inclusion of a polygenic score predictive of educational attainment (PS-Edu) into this model, and the use of the multi-generation, longitudinal Family Transitions Project (FTP) provides a unique opportunity to investigate genetic and environmental influences on the development of negative personality traits, and educational and economic outcomes. The FTP is a three-generation sample. This study utilized data from the first generation (G1; mean age 40 at initiation of the FTP) and second generation (G2; assessed at mean ages 18 and 30). Participants are approximately 50% female, 99% of European ancestry, primarily from lower to middle class SES. PS-Edu was significantly correlated with educational attainment in both generations of the FTP, accounting for 4.1% to 6.7% of the variance. Findings confirm that PS-Edu is a complex genetic index that is correlated with all of the socioeconomic constructs in the model. Results suggest potential geneenvironment correlation or common genetic influences underlie associations among parenting investments, negative personality traits and educational attainment. Genetic variance captured by PS-Edu was mediated substantially through G1 parental investments. Although study limitations warrant cautious interpretation, we demonstrate the promise of including polygenic scores in developmental models to better understand genetic and environmental influences on human development.
This special section focuses on the life-course development of positive and negative personality ... more This special section focuses on the life-course development of positive and negative personality traits and their consequences. Specifically, we pose four research questions inspired by the special section in Developmental Psychology on Conscientiousness (Reiss, Eccles, & Nielsen, 2014). The current set of articles extends the examination of the positive effects of Conscientiousness on individual well-being by also considering the potentially disruptive effects of specific negative personality traits (alienation and low sense of well-being). Our four questions are as follows. Question 1: what are the correlates of Conscientiousness and negative personality traits in terms of family processes? Question 2: to what degree do Conscientiousness and negative traits operate in a transactional process with the social and economic environment to amplify or suppress these characteristics? Question 3: how do individual personality characteristics affect specific behaviors and interactions with...
The Family Stress Model (FSM) was utilized to examine the effects of economic pressure on materna... more The Family Stress Model (FSM) was utilized to examine the effects of economic pressure on maternal depressive symptoms, couple conflict, and mother harsh parenting during adolescence, on offspring depressive symptoms in adulthood. Prospective longitudinal data was analyzed across three developmental time points which included 451 mothers and their adolescent. Economic pressure and mother depressive symptoms were assessed during early adolescence, couple conflict and mother harsh parenting were assessed during middle to late adolescence, and offspring depressive symptoms were assessed in adulthood. Findings were in support of pathways in the FSM in that economic pressure was related to maternal depressive symptoms, which were associated with couple conflict, that in turn predicted mother harsh parenting during adolescence, and mother harsh parenting was associated with offspring depressive symptoms in adulthood.
The current study examined the association between positive couple interaction and child social c... more The current study examined the association between positive couple interaction and child social competence as mediated through positive parenting and parent-child attachment security. Prospective, longitudinal data came from 209 mothers, fathers, and their biological child. Information regarding observed positive couple interaction, observed positive parenting, and parent-child attachment security were assessed when the child was 2 to 4 years old, and child social competence was assessed at 5 years old. Mothers and fathers were analyzed separately in the model. Results indicated that for both mothers and fathers, positive couple interaction was indirectly associated with child social competence through positive parenting and parent-child attachment. These pathways remained statistically significant even after child social competence at age 2 to 4 was taken into account. Results suggest that couple interaction spills over into parenting which impacts parent-child attachment, which is associated with positive child developmental outcomes.
Objectives The current study examined how economic pressure impacts parental positivity and posit... more Objectives The current study examined how economic pressure impacts parental positivity and positive parenting separately for mothers and fathers, as well as how positivity and parenting impact child social competence. Methods This study included 207 mothers, fathers, and their first-born child from toddlerhood through the preschool years. This study employed an Actor-Partner Interdependence Model which was developed to handle dyadic relationships to investigate the association between economic pressure, parental positivity, and positive parenting, separately for mother and father and the interdependent associations between them. Results Results showed that economic pressure when the child was age 2 (Time 1) was negatively associated with maternal and paternal positivity and father positive parenting when the child was 3-4 years old (Time 2). Maternal positivity was associated with paternal positivity and mother positive parenting was associated with father positive parenting. In addition, maternal positivity was associated with mother positive parenting while paternal positivity was not significantly related to father positive parenting at Time 2. Parental positivity and positive parenting at Time 2 were both associated with child social competence at age 5 (Time 3), even after controlling for child social competence at age 2 (Time 1). Conclusions The current results suggest that both maternal and paternal positivity and positive parenting are important protective factors for young children's social competence even under times of economic adversity.
Exposure to parental alcoholism can inhibit a child’s ability to become a successfully functionin... more Exposure to parental alcoholism can inhibit a child’s ability to become a successfully functioning young adult. Based on qualitative interviews, this study provides a deeper understanding of how those parent–adolescent relationships are associated with risky internalizing and externalizing behaviors. This qualitative study explores the lives of 13 young adult children of alcoholics (ACOAs) and provides a unique perspective through an adaptive developmental approach by evaluating emerging adults who were ACOAs and successfully functioning. Compelling findings emerged with respect to how young adults define alcoholism and being a child of alcoholism and how the parent–adolescent relationship adapts in the unstable environment associated with family alcoholism. Salient findings revealed that when emotional and physical detachment from a parent’s alcoholic behaviors in addition to an acceptance that those behaviors are not the adolescent’s responsibility, individuals gained better contr...
Historische Sozialforschung Historical Social Research Zentrum Fur Historische Sozialforschung Koln in Zusammenarbeit Mit Dem Informationszentrum Sozialwissenschaften Bonn, 2010
»Ökonomische Belastungen, elterliche Persönlichkeit und Entwicklung der Kinder: Eine interaktioni... more »Ökonomische Belastungen, elterliche Persönlichkeit und Entwicklung der Kinder: Eine interaktionistische Analyse«. The current economic downturn in the U.S. and around the world has refocused attention on the processes through which families and children are affected by economic hardship. This study examines the response to economic pressure of a cohort of youth first studied 20 years ago as adolescents and now grown to adulthood. A total of 271 of the original G2 adolescents (M age = 25.6 years) participated in the study with their young child (G3, M age = 2.31 years at the first time of assessment) and the child's other parent in 81% of the cases. Data analyses were guided by the interactionist model which proposed that positive G2 personality attributes during adolescence would predict lower economic pressure during adulthood and would diminish the negative family processes related to economic pressure expected to disrupt competent G3 development. The findings were consistent with this social selection aspect of the interactionist model. The model also predicted that economic pressure and other aspects of the related family stress process would affect G3 development net of earlier G2 personality. This social causation aspect of the interactionist model also received support. The findings suggest that the relationship between economic conditions and child development reflect a dynamic process of selection and causation that plays out over time and generations.
Parent reports of temperament are used to study many important topics in child development, such ... more Parent reports of temperament are used to study many important topics in child development, such as whether boys and girls differ in their levels of emotional reactivity and self-regulation. However, questions regarding measurement equivalence in parental reports of temperament are largely unexplored, despite the fact that this issue is critical for drawing the correct conclusions from mean-level comparisons. In the current study, measurement invariance across boys and girls (as targets), and mothers and fathers (as informants), was investigated in the Child Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ; Rothbart et al., 2001) using a sample of children ranging in age from 3 to 7 years (N = 605). Several instances of noninvariance were identified across both girls and boys, and mothers and fathers. An evaluation of effect size indices suggests that the practical impact of this noninvariance ranges from negligible to moderate. All told, this study illustrates the importance of taking a psychometricall...
This study investigated whether corporal punishment when the child was two years old predicted ch... more This study investigated whether corporal punishment when the child was two years old predicted child externalizing behaviors a year later, and whether or not this association was moderated by parents' observed behavior towards their child. Data came from 218 couples and their first born child. The frequency of fathers' corporal punishment when the child was two years old predicted child externalizing behaviors a year later, while controlling for initial levels of child externalizing behaviors. Also, observed positive and harsh parenting moderated the relationship between corporal punishment and child externalizing behaviors. These results highlight the importance of continuing to examine the effects of a commonly used form of discipline (i.e., corporal punishment) and the parental climate in which it is used. Keywords corporal punishment; externalizing behavior; moderation; observed behavior; parenting Controversy continues regarding the appropriateness and usefulness of corporal punishment. Twenty-four countries have institutionalized no-spanking laws and other countries are in the process of banning corporal punishment (Zolotor & Puzia, 2010). However, in the United States most parents continue to use corporal punishment to discipline their children (MacKenzie, Nicklas, Brooks-Gunn, & Waldfogel, 2011;). The social learning theory suggests that when parents use aggressive forms of discipline, children learn through modeling to be more aggressive themselves (Gámez-Guadix, Straus, & Hershberger, 2011). Indeed, children who receive physical punishment by their parents may learn to use similar tactics to control their environment (Graziano, 1994) and corporal punishment may change the way children perceive social information creating a tendency to access aggressive
Although research supports the influence of parents and peers on adolescent risky behavior, less ... more Although research supports the influence of parents and peers on adolescent risky behavior, less is known about mechanisms proposed to explain this relation. This study examined the influence of adolescent attitudes and intentions about such behaviors. Prospective, longitudinal data came from rural youth who participated throughout adolescence (n= 451). Observed harsh parenting and relationship with deviant peers was assessed in early adolescence, attitudes and intentions were measured during middle adolescence, and risky behavior was assessed in late adolescence. Results indicated that parenting and deviant peers was related to engagement in tobacco use, alcohol use, and risky sexual behaviors. Moreover, attitudes and intentions mediated this relationship even after parent use and adolescent early involvement in these behaviors were taken into account. Adolescence is a period of experimentation with a variety of socially proscribed activities such as tobacco use, alcohol use, and engagement in risky sexual behaviors (Conger, Rueter, & Conger, 1994). Indeed, while such experimentation may be viewed as a normative part of adolescence (Muuss & Porton, 1998), studies show that youth who engage in risky behaviors are at increased risk of long-term health issues as well as problems in the areas of academics, work disruptions, and overall family life (Jessor, 1998; Crosnoe & Johnson, 2011). For example, early alcohol use places adolescents at greater risk for adult alcohol use disorders (Englund, Egeland, Oliva, & Collins, 2008) and early sexual initiation can lead to unplanned pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases (Kincaid, Jones, Sterrett, & McKee, 2012). Therefore, it is important to understand factors that may influence adolescent substance use and engagement in risky sexual behavior. Studies show that both parents and peers may effect an adolescent's likelihood of engaging in such behaviors (Elkington,
We tested the differential susceptibility hypothesis with respect to connections between interact... more We tested the differential susceptibility hypothesis with respect to connections between interactions in the family of origin and subsequent behaviors with romantic partners. Focal or target participants (G2) in an ongoing longitudinal study (A' = 352) were observed interacting with their parents (Gl) during adolescence and again with their romantic partners in adulthood. Independent observers rated positive engagement and hostility by Gl and G2 during structured interaction tasks. We created an index for hypothesized genetic plasticity by summing G2's allelic variation for polymorphisms in 5 genes (serotonin transporter gene [linked polymorphism], 5-HTT; ankyrin repeat and kinase domain containing 1 gene/dopamine receptor D2 gene, ANKK1/DRD2; dopamine receptor D4 gene, DRD4\ dopamine active transporter gene, DAT; and catechol-0-methyltransferase gene, COMT). Consistent with the differential susceptibility hypothesis, G2s exposed to more hostile and positively engaged parenting behaviors during adolescence were more hostile or positively engaged toward a romantic partner if they had higher scores on the genetic plasticity index. In short, genetic factors moderated the connection between earlier experiences in the family of origin and future romantic relationship behaviors, for better and for worse.
Purpose: We examined rural-urban differences in cumulative risk for youth substance use. A recent... more Purpose: We examined rural-urban differences in cumulative risk for youth substance use. A recent report [National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (CASA) 2000] found that the ruralurban distribution of substance use and known risk factors for substance use differed; in many cases rural youth showed higher levels of use, as well as higher levels of risk factors. The current investigation, while not directly examining substance use, further examined rural-urban differences in the distribution of risk factors for youth substance use, based on information from parent reports. Method: Study 1 data were collected from a random sample of Midwestern parents (n = 339) with a young adolescent between the ages of 11 and 13 years. Study 2 data were collected from a second sample of Midwestern parents (n = 593). Results: Analyses of rural-urban comparisons demonstrated higher levels of cumulative risk among rural youth. An evaluation of the sensitivity of the analysis to rural-urban classification schemes indicated that the findings were robust, but that there was some minor variation in rural-urban differences by classification scheme. Implications: Results contribute to an explanation of findings from earlier reports of rural-urban differences in substance use, and suggest directions for future research on rural-urban distributions of youth risk factors.
The intergenerational transmission of violence directed toward intimate partners has been documen... more The intergenerational transmission of violence directed toward intimate partners has been documented for the past three decades. Overall, the literature shows that violence in the family of origin leads to violence in the family of destination. However, this predominately cross-sectional or retrospective literature is limited by self-selection, endogeneity, and reporter biases as it has not been able to assess how individual and family behaviors simultaneously experienced during adolescence influence intimate partner violence throughout adulthood. The present study used data from the Iowa Youth and Families Project (IYFP; N = 392; 52 % Female), a multi-method, multitrait prospective approach, to overcome this limitation. We focused on psychological intimate partner violence in both emerging adulthood (19-23 years) and adulthood (27-31 years), and include self and partner ratings of violence as well as observational data in a sample of rural non-Hispanic white families. Controlling for a host of individual risk factors as well as interparental psychological violence from adolescence (14-15 years), the results show that exposure to parentto-child psychological violence during adolescence is a key predictor of intimate partner violence throughout adulthood. In addition, negative emotionality and the number of sexual partners in adolescence predicted intimate partner violence in both emerging adulthood and adulthood. Exposure to family stress was associated positively with intimate partner violence in adulthood but not in emerging adulthood, whereas academic difficulties were found to increase violence in emerging adulthood only. Unlike previous research, results did not support a direct effect of interparental psychological violence on psychological violence in the next generation. Gender differences were found only in emerging adulthood. Implications of these findings are discussed in light of the current literature and future directions.
Despite high rates of grandmother involvement with young grandchildren, very little research has ... more Despite high rates of grandmother involvement with young grandchildren, very little research has examined the associations between non-residential grandmother involvement and grandchild social adjustment. The present study draws 127 families enrolled in the Family Transitions Project to consider the degree to which mother-reported maternal grandmother involvement buffers 3-and 4year old grandchildren from economic, parenting, and child temperamental risks for reduced social competence and elevated externalizing behaviors. Findings indicate that higher levels of motherreported grandmother involvement reduced the negative association between observed grandchild negative emotional reactivity and social competence. Further, high levels of mother-reported grandmother involvement protected grandchildren from the positive association between observed harsh mother parenting and grandchild externalizing behaviors. These findings underscore the relevance of moving beyond the nuclear family to understand factors linked to social adjustment during early childhood.
The present study considered the intergenerational consequences of experiencing socioeconomic dis... more The present study considered the intergenerational consequences of experiencing socioeconomic disadvantage within the family of origin. Specifically, the influence of socioeconomic disadvantage experienced during adolescence on the timing of parenthood as well as the association between early parenthood and risk for harsh parenting and emerging child problem behavior was evaluated. Participants included 154 3-generation families, followed prospectively over a 12-year period. Results indicated that exposure to poverty during adolescence and not parents' (G1) education predicted an earlier age of parenthood in the second generation (G2). Younger G2 parents were observed to be harsher during interactions with their own 2-year old child (G3) and harsh parenting predicted increases in G3 children's externalizing problems from age 2 to age 3. Finally, G3 children's externalizing behavior measured at age 3 predicted increases in harsh parenting from age 3 to 4, suggesting that G3 children's behavior may exacerbate the longitudinal effects of socioeconomic disadvantage. Although children from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds are over identified in terms of rates of antisocial behaviors and emotional problems (e.g., McLoyd, 1998), little research has considered the consequences of economic disadvantage across multiple generations. Despite the lack of empirical research, the consequences of socioeconomic disadvantage likely extend beyond the immediate family to affect subsequent generations of family members (e.g., Brooks-Gunn & Duncan, 1997). For instance, adolescents residing in socioeconomically disadvantaged homes seem to be at increased risk for dropping out of school, engaging in risk-taking behavior, and entering parenthood at an early age (Hardy, et al., 1998; Pears, et al., 2005). The relationship between socioeconomic disadvantage in the family of origin and early parenthood is especially noteworthy inasmuch as an earlier age at first birth is associated with more hostile and less nurturing behavior by parents (Conger, et al., 1984).
This study examined personality during adolescence as a predictor of later parenting of toddler-a... more This study examined personality during adolescence as a predictor of later parenting of toddler-aged offspring. On the basis of empirical research on the timing of parenthood and the interactionist model (Conger & Donnellan, 2007), we examined age at parenthood and family socioeconomic status (SES) as mediators of the relation between personality and parenting. Participants were 228 emerging adults from an ongoing longitudinal study of the transition to adulthood. Later entry into parenthood and higher SES accounted for the association between personality characteristics and lower levels of harsh parenting and higher levels of positive parenting. Consistent with the interactionist model, both personality characteristics and SES-linked variables were related to interpersonal processes in families. The findings suggest that promoting adaptive personality traits during childhood and adolescence may help delay early entry into parenthood, promote higher SES, and, indirectly, foster more positive parenting of young children.
This article reports two exploratory studies testing a model guided by a social interactional per... more This article reports two exploratory studies testing a model guided by a social interactional perspective, positing an inverse relation between the quality of parent-child interactions and adolescent problem behaviors. It addresses mixed findings in the literature related to gender differences. Study 1 uses cross-sectional survey data from midwestern parents with either a boy ( n = 377) or a girl ( n = 335) between 11 and 13 years of age. Study 2 data, used to replicate the Study 1 results, are collected from a cross-sectional survey sample of midwestern parents with either a boy ( n = 279) or a girl ( n = 269) in the same age group. Multisample latent variable structural equation modeling confirms the hypothesized inverse relationships in both studies. Also, there are no significant young adolescent gender differences in these relationships. The consistency of findings from both studies is discussed with respect to results from earlier research.
Background: There is evidence that seasonal variation in depressive symptoms is common in the pop... more Background: There is evidence that seasonal variation in depressive symptoms is common in the population. However, research is limited by a reliance on longterm retrospective methods. Methods: Seasonal patterns were tested in two samples of community participants recruited in separate prospective studies in the Midwestern (n = 556 males/females) and Pacific Northwestern (n = 206 males) United States. Participants completed self-report measures of depressive symptoms 10-19 times from ages 14-36 years (n = 8,316 person observations). These data were compared with local meteorological conditions (e.g., solar radiation) recorded across the 2 weeks prior to each self-report. Results: In within-subjects analyses, participants' depressive symptoms and the probability of clinically significant symptoms varied with the time of year, as hypothesized (highest in the weeks of early Winter; lowest in early Fall). However, effects sizes were modest and were not explained by recent sunlight or other meteorological conditions. Limitations: Samples were not nationally representative. Participants did not complete retrospective reports of seasonal depression or measures of current vegetative symptoms. Conclusions: Neither time of the year or recent seasonally linked meteorological conditions were powerful influences on depressive symptoms experienced by community populations in relevant geographic regions. Prior studies may have overestimated the prevalence and significance of seasonal variation in depressive symptoms for the general population.
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Papers by Tricia Neppl