Mankind is driven by the need to create order from chaos. Man creates order and bestows meaning t... more Mankind is driven by the need to create order from chaos. Man creates order and bestows meaning to life by imposing a world viewa set of assumptions pertaining to the environment that allows it to be perceived in a consistently meaningful manner. This need probably extends back to the very distant past, when survival depended on cohesion within the group or tribe. Social structures provided these vital forces of cohesion which were essential to survival. This process not only must have facilitated the acceptance of tribal law but also created the need for a mythical explanation of nature. Given the immense selective importance of such social and religious structures over such vast stretches of time, it is difficult not to believe they must have made an imprint on the human psyche. Although this process of "world view formation" appears to be common to all peoples since time immemorial, it has masqueraded under a number of different guises, including mythology, religion, theology, philosophy, and yes, science. Although qualitatively different in its approach, science springs from the same well of psychic need and represents only one of the many world views. Indeed, within our own Western culture, science has so molded our view of the cosmos that "truth" has become synonomous with "scientifically verifiable." Once a mere intellectual endeavor indulged in only by the most erudite (or otherwise removed from any practical confrontations with life), science has evolved into a way of life. In short, it now portrays reality. It is in this light that we may analyze the significance of the interaction between scientific development and the environmental movement of late. The development of science has been anything but uniform in time and place. Periods of sporadic advance have been accompanied *Research Associate, The Institute on Man and Science, Rensselaerville, N.Y. and doctoral student, University of Michigan.
Using resource-based theory as a point of departure, this paper proposes a natural resource-based... more Using resource-based theory as a point of departure, this paper proposes a natural resource-based view of the firm--a new theory based upon the firm's relationship to the natural environment. It is composed of three interrelated strategies--pollution prevention, product stewardship, and sustainable development. Propositions are advanced for each of these strategies regarding their connections to sustained competitive advantage, firm performance, and implementation. Strategic management deals with the challenge of establishing and maintaining a match between changing external (environmental) factors and internal (organizational) resources and capabilities
The Federal Photovoltaics Utilization Program (FPU P) was established in 1978 with the belief tha... more The Federal Photovoltaics Utilization Program (FPU P) was established in 1978 with the belief that getting photovoltaic cells into the market was a "bootstrap problem" -one of eliminating market uncertainties through federal procurements to enable investments in improved production processes. A lack of clearly defined program objectives and expected results, however, was translated into continuing difficulties in implementation. Using the FPU P experience as an example, an alternative model of photovoltaic procurement is proposed which is simultaneously more structured (in that greater analytical control is used in selecting applications to fund) and more adaptive (in that continuous feedback is built in). A discussion of such a framework and sequential evaluation design is followed by some comments pertaining to the future of other commercialization efforts.
SI conversion factors English unit Conversion factor SI unit inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm) foot... more SI conversion factors English unit Conversion factor SI unit inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm) foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m) square foot (ft 2) 0.093 square meter (m 2) cubic foot (ft 3) 0.028 cubic meter (m 3) pound (lb), mass 0.454 kilogram (kg) A process was designed to evaluate the sustainability and potential marketability of USDA Forest Service patented technologies. The process was designed and tested jointly by the University of North Carolina, the University of Michigan, Partners for Strategic Change, and the USDA Forest Service. Two technologies were evaluated: a fiber-based product and a wood fiber/fiberglass composite technology. The results indicate several different ways in which the technologies might be exploited to produce new commercial products for both domestic and international markets, through licensing of the patents and other agency/industry partnerships. This report represents the initial effort by the Forest Service to work in partnership with business schools to evaluate the commercial potential of patented agency technologies and locate potential licensees and cooperators interested in utilizing the technologies. The Forest Service will seek additional cooperative ventures with university business schools to develop business plans for other patented, but as yet unlicensed, technologies as the next step in the process of commercializing these technologies.
Improving Impact Assessment: Increasing the Relevance and Utilization of the Scientific and Technical Information
Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 1985
ABSTRACT As Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) become increasingly important in the policymaki... more ABSTRACT As Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) become increasingly important in the policymaking process, it is vital that they be as complete and accurate as possible. The authors of this volume consider ways in which the development and evaluation of scientific and technical information for EIS can be improved. Addressing key legal, social, political, and ecological issues, they explore ways to facilitate communication between researchers and policymakers, evaluate the need for an Environmental Impact Assessment Network, and review case-study applications of new approaches.
Journal of International Business Studies, Aug 19, 2004
With established markets becoming saturated, multinational corporations (MNCs) have turned increa... more With established markets becoming saturated, multinational corporations (MNCs) have turned increasingly to emerging markets (EMs) in the developing world. Such EM strategies have been targeted almost exclusively at the wealthy elite at the top of the economic pyramid. Recently, however, a number of MNCs have launched new initiatives that explore the untapped market potential at the base of the economic pyramid, the largest and fastest-growing segment of the world's population. Reaching the four billion people in these markets poses both tremendous opportunities and unique challenges to MNCs, as conventional wisdom about MNC global capabilities and subsidiary strategy in EMs may not be appropriate. How MNCs can successfully enter these lowincome markets has not been effectively addressed in the literatures on global and EM strategies. An exploratory analysis, involving interviews with MNC managers, original case studies, and archival material, indicates that the transnational model of national responsiveness, global efficiency and worldwide learning may not be sufficient. Results suggest that the success of initiatives targeting low-income markets is enhanced by recognizing that Western-style patterns of economic development may not occur in these business environments. Business strategies that rely on leveraging the strengths of the existing market environment outperform those that focus on overcoming weaknesses. These strategies include developing relationships with non-traditional partners, co-inventing custom solutions, and building local capacity. Together, these successful strategies suggest the importance of MNCs developing a global capability in social embeddedness.
We would like to thank the editor for her encouragement and the associate editor for insightful a... more We would like to thank the editor for her encouragement and the associate editor for insightful and penetrating comments. We are also very grateful for the referees' constructive comments that substantially benefited the paper. In addition, we acknowledge the helpful comments from participants in the EIBA 1998 conference, the Academy of Management 1998 meetings, and the University of Michigan Business School IB research seminar. Last but not least, we are grateful for the very helpful comments by Randall Morck, Joanne Oxley, and Marina Whitman.
Gordon A. Enk has received his Ph.D. in natural resource economics from Yale University. He is cu... more Gordon A. Enk has received his Ph.D. in natural resource economics from Yale University. He is curren tly President of Gordon A. Enk and Associates, Inc. and th e Research and Decision Center, Inc. Hi s research and consulting has focussed on innovative and participatory approaches to strategic planning, environmental impact and technology assessment, and risk analysis. His past work has included research on the economics and scientific quality of the environmental impact assessment process, as well as action projects concerning technology assessment of decentralized energy sys tems, participatory approaches to power plant siting and the design of a long-term research agenda to improve the understanding of the toxicity of inhalable particles from fl y ash resulting from coal combustion. He is currently involved in an assessment of the scientific quality of informa tion pertaining to the development of a victim compensation program for individuals exposed to toxic substances, and a comparative analysis of the Japanese and US approaches to risk assessment and risk ma nagement. Stuart L. Hart has received his Ph.D. from the University of Michigan's interdisciplinary planning program; he has been involved in several lines of research related to the use of information in organizati onal decision making and strategic problem solving. During the middle and late 1970s, he collaborated with Dr. Enk on research and consulted in the emerging fields of environmental and technology assessment. Dr. Hart has served as consultant to a project aimed a t developing an approach to enable the US Environmental Protection Agency to anticipate future environmental problems. Another recent project involved key scientists and researchers in the develop ment of a research agenda for assessing the potential health risks associated with small inhalable particles resulting from coal comb ustion. North-H olland Human Systems Management 5 (1985) 245-258 In addition to hi s work in impact assessment, policy analysis, and strategic problem-solving, Dr. Hart is also involved in st udies relating to technological innovation and economic development. One such effort focuses on the effectiveness of universityindustry relationships in Michigan, with a n eye toward improvi ng such links. Increasingly, the issues and problems faced by organizations seem to defy resolutions by the traditional decision tools and techniques developed over the past 30 years (primarily in the field s of operations research and quantitative modeling). These techniques were designed to solve well-defined problems that occur repeated ly in the management of organ iza tions. Social and economic turbulence, however, has consp ired to make the utility of such techniques questionab le. There is a growing need for strategic problem solving approaches which allow decision makers to interp ret complex situations, constructively tap differing perspectives, and detect emerging social and scientific concerns. T h.is article describes one such approach to strategic problem•solvi ng, wh.ich consists of a sequence of eight steps ; initial acti vi ties are oriented toward expanding the range of informat ion available through literature review, networking, and surveys. Emphasis in later steps is on narrowing and synthesi zing the range of options and strategies through interactive workshops involving key stakeholders and experts, and focused project reports. The approach is illustrated using an actual case application.
Gordon A. Enk has received his Ph.D. in natural resource economics from Yale University. He is cu... more Gordon A. Enk has received his Ph.D. in natural resource economics from Yale University. He is curren tly President of Gordon A. Enk and Associates, Inc. and th e Research and Decision Center, Inc. Hi s research and consulting has focussed on innovative and participatory approaches to strategic planning, environmental impact and technology assessment, and risk analysis. His past work has included research on the economics and scientific quality of the environmental impact assessment process, as well as action projects concerning technology assessment of decentralized energy sys tems, participatory approaches to power plant siting and the design of a long-term research agenda to improve the understanding of the toxicity of inhalable particles from fl y ash resulting from coal combustion. He is currently involved in an assessment of the scientific quality of informa tion pertaining to the development of a victim compensation program for individuals exposed to toxic substances, and a comparative analysis of the Japanese and US approaches to risk assessment and risk ma nagement. Stuart L. Hart has received his Ph.D. from the University of Michigan's interdisciplinary planning program; he has been involved in several lines of research related to the use of information in organizati onal decision making and strategic problem solving. During the middle and late 1970s, he collaborated with Dr. Enk on research and consulted in the emerging fields of environmental and technology assessment. Dr. Hart has served as consultant to a project aimed a t developing an approach to enable the US Environmental Protection Agency to anticipate future environmental problems. Another recent project involved key scientists and researchers in the develop ment of a research agenda for assessing the potential health risks associated with small inhalable particles resulting from coal comb ustion. North-H olland Human Systems Management 5 (1985) 245-258 In addition to hi s work in impact assessment, policy analysis, and strategic problem-solving, Dr. Hart is also involved in st udies relating to technological innovation and economic development. One such effort focuses on the effectiveness of universityindustry relationships in Michigan, with a n eye toward improvi ng such links. Increasingly, the issues and problems faced by organizations seem to defy resolutions by the traditional decision tools and techniques developed over the past 30 years (primarily in the field s of operations research and quantitative modeling). These techniques were designed to solve well-defined problems that occur repeated ly in the management of organ iza tions. Social and economic turbulence, however, has consp ired to make the utility of such techniques questionab le. There is a growing need for strategic problem solving approaches which allow decision makers to interp ret complex situations, constructively tap differing perspectives, and detect emerging social and scientific concerns. T h.is article describes one such approach to strategic problem•solvi ng, wh.ich consists of a sequence of eight steps ; initial acti vi ties are oriented toward expanding the range of informat ion available through literature review, networking, and surveys. Emphasis in later steps is on narrowing and synthesi zing the range of options and strategies through interactive workshops involving key stakeholders and experts, and focused project reports. The approach is illustrated using an actual case application.
Mankind is driven by the need to create order from chaos. Man creates order and bestows meaning t... more Mankind is driven by the need to create order from chaos. Man creates order and bestows meaning to life by imposing a world viewa set of assumptions pertaining to the environment that allows it to be perceived in a consistently meaningful manner. This need probably extends back to the very distant past, when survival depended on cohesion within the group or tribe. Social structures provided these vital forces of cohesion which were essential to survival. This process not only must have facilitated the acceptance of tribal law but also created the need for a mythical explanation of nature. Given the immense selective importance of such social and religious structures over such vast stretches of time, it is difficult not to believe they must have made an imprint on the human psyche. Although this process of "world view formation" appears to be common to all peoples since time immemorial, it has masqueraded under a number of different guises, including mythology, religion, theology, philosophy, and yes, science. Although qualitatively different in its approach, science springs from the same well of psychic need and represents only one of the many world views. Indeed, within our own Western culture, science has so molded our view of the cosmos that "truth" has become synonomous with "scientifically verifiable." Once a mere intellectual endeavor indulged in only by the most erudite (or otherwise removed from any practical confrontations with life), science has evolved into a way of life. In short, it now portrays reality. It is in this light that we may analyze the significance of the interaction between scientific development and the environmental movement of late. The development of science has been anything but uniform in time and place. Periods of sporadic advance have been accompanied *Research Associate, The Institute on Man and Science, Rensselaerville, N.Y. and doctoral student, University of Michigan.
Using resource-based theory as a point of departure, this paper proposes a natural resource-based... more Using resource-based theory as a point of departure, this paper proposes a natural resource-based view of the firm--a new theory based upon the firm's relationship to the natural environment. It is composed of three interrelated strategies--pollution prevention, product stewardship, and sustainable development. Propositions are advanced for each of these strategies regarding their connections to sustained competitive advantage, firm performance, and implementation. Strategic management deals with the challenge of establishing and maintaining a match between changing external (environmental) factors and internal (organizational) resources and capabilities
The Federal Photovoltaics Utilization Program (FPU P) was established in 1978 with the belief tha... more The Federal Photovoltaics Utilization Program (FPU P) was established in 1978 with the belief that getting photovoltaic cells into the market was a "bootstrap problem" -one of eliminating market uncertainties through federal procurements to enable investments in improved production processes. A lack of clearly defined program objectives and expected results, however, was translated into continuing difficulties in implementation. Using the FPU P experience as an example, an alternative model of photovoltaic procurement is proposed which is simultaneously more structured (in that greater analytical control is used in selecting applications to fund) and more adaptive (in that continuous feedback is built in). A discussion of such a framework and sequential evaluation design is followed by some comments pertaining to the future of other commercialization efforts.
SI conversion factors English unit Conversion factor SI unit inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm) foot... more SI conversion factors English unit Conversion factor SI unit inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm) foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m) square foot (ft 2) 0.093 square meter (m 2) cubic foot (ft 3) 0.028 cubic meter (m 3) pound (lb), mass 0.454 kilogram (kg) A process was designed to evaluate the sustainability and potential marketability of USDA Forest Service patented technologies. The process was designed and tested jointly by the University of North Carolina, the University of Michigan, Partners for Strategic Change, and the USDA Forest Service. Two technologies were evaluated: a fiber-based product and a wood fiber/fiberglass composite technology. The results indicate several different ways in which the technologies might be exploited to produce new commercial products for both domestic and international markets, through licensing of the patents and other agency/industry partnerships. This report represents the initial effort by the Forest Service to work in partnership with business schools to evaluate the commercial potential of patented agency technologies and locate potential licensees and cooperators interested in utilizing the technologies. The Forest Service will seek additional cooperative ventures with university business schools to develop business plans for other patented, but as yet unlicensed, technologies as the next step in the process of commercializing these technologies.
Improving Impact Assessment: Increasing the Relevance and Utilization of the Scientific and Technical Information
Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 1985
ABSTRACT As Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) become increasingly important in the policymaki... more ABSTRACT As Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) become increasingly important in the policymaking process, it is vital that they be as complete and accurate as possible. The authors of this volume consider ways in which the development and evaluation of scientific and technical information for EIS can be improved. Addressing key legal, social, political, and ecological issues, they explore ways to facilitate communication between researchers and policymakers, evaluate the need for an Environmental Impact Assessment Network, and review case-study applications of new approaches.
Journal of International Business Studies, Aug 19, 2004
With established markets becoming saturated, multinational corporations (MNCs) have turned increa... more With established markets becoming saturated, multinational corporations (MNCs) have turned increasingly to emerging markets (EMs) in the developing world. Such EM strategies have been targeted almost exclusively at the wealthy elite at the top of the economic pyramid. Recently, however, a number of MNCs have launched new initiatives that explore the untapped market potential at the base of the economic pyramid, the largest and fastest-growing segment of the world's population. Reaching the four billion people in these markets poses both tremendous opportunities and unique challenges to MNCs, as conventional wisdom about MNC global capabilities and subsidiary strategy in EMs may not be appropriate. How MNCs can successfully enter these lowincome markets has not been effectively addressed in the literatures on global and EM strategies. An exploratory analysis, involving interviews with MNC managers, original case studies, and archival material, indicates that the transnational model of national responsiveness, global efficiency and worldwide learning may not be sufficient. Results suggest that the success of initiatives targeting low-income markets is enhanced by recognizing that Western-style patterns of economic development may not occur in these business environments. Business strategies that rely on leveraging the strengths of the existing market environment outperform those that focus on overcoming weaknesses. These strategies include developing relationships with non-traditional partners, co-inventing custom solutions, and building local capacity. Together, these successful strategies suggest the importance of MNCs developing a global capability in social embeddedness.
We would like to thank the editor for her encouragement and the associate editor for insightful a... more We would like to thank the editor for her encouragement and the associate editor for insightful and penetrating comments. We are also very grateful for the referees' constructive comments that substantially benefited the paper. In addition, we acknowledge the helpful comments from participants in the EIBA 1998 conference, the Academy of Management 1998 meetings, and the University of Michigan Business School IB research seminar. Last but not least, we are grateful for the very helpful comments by Randall Morck, Joanne Oxley, and Marina Whitman.
Gordon A. Enk has received his Ph.D. in natural resource economics from Yale University. He is cu... more Gordon A. Enk has received his Ph.D. in natural resource economics from Yale University. He is curren tly President of Gordon A. Enk and Associates, Inc. and th e Research and Decision Center, Inc. Hi s research and consulting has focussed on innovative and participatory approaches to strategic planning, environmental impact and technology assessment, and risk analysis. His past work has included research on the economics and scientific quality of the environmental impact assessment process, as well as action projects concerning technology assessment of decentralized energy sys tems, participatory approaches to power plant siting and the design of a long-term research agenda to improve the understanding of the toxicity of inhalable particles from fl y ash resulting from coal combustion. He is currently involved in an assessment of the scientific quality of informa tion pertaining to the development of a victim compensation program for individuals exposed to toxic substances, and a comparative analysis of the Japanese and US approaches to risk assessment and risk ma nagement. Stuart L. Hart has received his Ph.D. from the University of Michigan's interdisciplinary planning program; he has been involved in several lines of research related to the use of information in organizati onal decision making and strategic problem solving. During the middle and late 1970s, he collaborated with Dr. Enk on research and consulted in the emerging fields of environmental and technology assessment. Dr. Hart has served as consultant to a project aimed a t developing an approach to enable the US Environmental Protection Agency to anticipate future environmental problems. Another recent project involved key scientists and researchers in the develop ment of a research agenda for assessing the potential health risks associated with small inhalable particles resulting from coal comb ustion. North-H olland Human Systems Management 5 (1985) 245-258 In addition to hi s work in impact assessment, policy analysis, and strategic problem-solving, Dr. Hart is also involved in st udies relating to technological innovation and economic development. One such effort focuses on the effectiveness of universityindustry relationships in Michigan, with a n eye toward improvi ng such links. Increasingly, the issues and problems faced by organizations seem to defy resolutions by the traditional decision tools and techniques developed over the past 30 years (primarily in the field s of operations research and quantitative modeling). These techniques were designed to solve well-defined problems that occur repeated ly in the management of organ iza tions. Social and economic turbulence, however, has consp ired to make the utility of such techniques questionab le. There is a growing need for strategic problem solving approaches which allow decision makers to interp ret complex situations, constructively tap differing perspectives, and detect emerging social and scientific concerns. T h.is article describes one such approach to strategic problem•solvi ng, wh.ich consists of a sequence of eight steps ; initial acti vi ties are oriented toward expanding the range of informat ion available through literature review, networking, and surveys. Emphasis in later steps is on narrowing and synthesi zing the range of options and strategies through interactive workshops involving key stakeholders and experts, and focused project reports. The approach is illustrated using an actual case application.
Gordon A. Enk has received his Ph.D. in natural resource economics from Yale University. He is cu... more Gordon A. Enk has received his Ph.D. in natural resource economics from Yale University. He is curren tly President of Gordon A. Enk and Associates, Inc. and th e Research and Decision Center, Inc. Hi s research and consulting has focussed on innovative and participatory approaches to strategic planning, environmental impact and technology assessment, and risk analysis. His past work has included research on the economics and scientific quality of the environmental impact assessment process, as well as action projects concerning technology assessment of decentralized energy sys tems, participatory approaches to power plant siting and the design of a long-term research agenda to improve the understanding of the toxicity of inhalable particles from fl y ash resulting from coal combustion. He is currently involved in an assessment of the scientific quality of informa tion pertaining to the development of a victim compensation program for individuals exposed to toxic substances, and a comparative analysis of the Japanese and US approaches to risk assessment and risk ma nagement. Stuart L. Hart has received his Ph.D. from the University of Michigan's interdisciplinary planning program; he has been involved in several lines of research related to the use of information in organizati onal decision making and strategic problem solving. During the middle and late 1970s, he collaborated with Dr. Enk on research and consulted in the emerging fields of environmental and technology assessment. Dr. Hart has served as consultant to a project aimed a t developing an approach to enable the US Environmental Protection Agency to anticipate future environmental problems. Another recent project involved key scientists and researchers in the develop ment of a research agenda for assessing the potential health risks associated with small inhalable particles resulting from coal comb ustion. North-H olland Human Systems Management 5 (1985) 245-258 In addition to hi s work in impact assessment, policy analysis, and strategic problem-solving, Dr. Hart is also involved in st udies relating to technological innovation and economic development. One such effort focuses on the effectiveness of universityindustry relationships in Michigan, with a n eye toward improvi ng such links. Increasingly, the issues and problems faced by organizations seem to defy resolutions by the traditional decision tools and techniques developed over the past 30 years (primarily in the field s of operations research and quantitative modeling). These techniques were designed to solve well-defined problems that occur repeated ly in the management of organ iza tions. Social and economic turbulence, however, has consp ired to make the utility of such techniques questionab le. There is a growing need for strategic problem solving approaches which allow decision makers to interp ret complex situations, constructively tap differing perspectives, and detect emerging social and scientific concerns. T h.is article describes one such approach to strategic problem•solvi ng, wh.ich consists of a sequence of eight steps ; initial acti vi ties are oriented toward expanding the range of informat ion available through literature review, networking, and surveys. Emphasis in later steps is on narrowing and synthesi zing the range of options and strategies through interactive workshops involving key stakeholders and experts, and focused project reports. The approach is illustrated using an actual case application.
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