This new guidance document has been written to enable designers to determine the vibration respon... more This new guidance document has been written to enable designers to determine the vibration response of sensitive floors with improved accuracy. It will enable the response to be compared with BS 6472 and ISO 10137 for general structures, and with the specific NHS performance standard for hospitals, Health Technical Memorandum 08-01. It includes design guidance for all types of floor construction using steel members and for a variety of use characteristics. It makes reference to research and measurements in a variety of buildings that have demonstrated the good quality vibration performance that can be achieved with composite floors.
The guideline and background documents have been translated into different languages and publishe... more The guideline and background documents have been translated into different languages and published on a project web page (www.stb.rwth-aachen.de/projekte/2007/HIVOSS/ download.php) that may be easily found by an Internet search for ‘Hivoss’. At this site the guideline and background documents can be downloaded as a free PDF. This download page has received a lot of interest, resulting in 1 900 downloads of the footbridge guideline and 1 000 downloads of the floor guideline up to 30 March 2009.
A finite element numerical model is used to estimate the force displacement backbone curve of ste... more A finite element numerical model is used to estimate the force displacement backbone curve of steel moment frame beam-column-joint subassemblies tested at large scale under repeated cyclic loading with different composite deck slab configurations. The slab configurations included: no-slab; fully isolated slab; two configurations for detailing the slab near the region between the column flanges; and a full depth reinforced slab. Then, a simple analytical model was developed so that designers can estimate the likely peak strength due to slab effect. This analytical model considers the common deformation modes and the strength hierarchy. It was found that the finite element numerical model captured the backbone envelope of experimental tests done on different slab configurations for the bare frame, isolated slab and full depth slab configurations, but overestimated the strength at larger displacements for the other configurations due to difficulty in considering the slab modes of failu...
Composite slab construction is gaining popularity in New Zealand. These slabs may influence beam ... more Composite slab construction is gaining popularity in New Zealand. These slabs may influence beam column joint subassemblies as they are exposed to earthquakeinduced shaking. However, several design issues with composite slabs need to be addressed so that they can be used to their full advantage in design. These relate to considering the effect of the slab on the beam design strength, the likely statistical variation of the beam and slab under strong seismic shocks that will affect the column joint demand, and the resistance of the panel zone. In this paper, experimental test setups are described which consider slab isolation, beam overstrength, full depth slab around the column, low damage connection, and demand on the panel zone. A new concept of slab confinement using a shear key will be presented to form a force transfer mechanism to avoid failure of concrete either in crushing or spalling. Also the development of a non-prying sliding hinge joint low damage connection and its performance with composite slabs is discussed. The outcome of this will be useful to develop simple design recommendations for the New Zealand steel standard.
Please refer to published version for the most recent bibliographic citation information. If a pu... more Please refer to published version for the most recent bibliographic citation information. If a published version is known of, the repository item page linked to above, will contain details on accessing it.
This paper presents some of the innovations that are included within the new Bridge Design Standa... more This paper presents some of the innovations that are included within the new Bridge Design Standard for Steel and Composite Construction AS/NZS 5100.6, which will be the first harmonized standard between Australia and New Zealand for the design of bridges. As Chairs of the Committees responsible for AS/NZS 5100.6 and AS/NZS 2327, the authors of this paper present the challenges faced from the introduction concrete compressive strengths up to 100 MPa and quenched and tempered steels with a yield strength up to 690 MPa. Perhaps one of the most innovative aspects of this standard is the introduction of an appendix that provides design rules for steel products that are not manufactured to Australia and New Zealand standards. This appendix is underpinned by rigorous structural reliability analyses undertaken by Australian and New Zealand researchers, which included the present authors of this paper.
The standard push test specimen in the current version of Eurocode 4 does not provide any informa... more The standard push test specimen in the current version of Eurocode 4 does not provide any information on what modifications should be made when profiled steel sheeting is introduced. Whilst the lack of information was intended to encourage innovation, this has sometimes lead to test results implying that stud connectors possess a lower resistance and ductility than assumed in current Standards. From full-scale beam and companion push tests in Europe, it has been shown that modifying the push test through the introduction of a normal force to the face of the test slabs provides comparable load-slip performance to that encountered within a beam. Within the work programme for developing the second generation of Eurocodes, this paper presents part of the background to Sub-task 1 of SC4.T3, whose aim is to develop an improved push test for Eurocode 4 when stud connectors are welded within profiled steel sheeting.
This database is collected for evaluating the reliability of CFST columns designed by modern code... more This database is collected for evaluating the reliability of CFST columns designed by modern codes of practice (see Thai H-T, Thai S, Ngo T, Uy B, Kang W-H, Hicks SJ. Reliability considerations of modern codes for CFST columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2021;106482). The database contains 3,208 tests including: - 1,305 tests on circular CFST columns under concentric loading - 1,003 tests on rectangular CFST columns under concentric loading - 499 tests on circular CFST columns under eccentric loading - 401 tests on rectangular CFST columns under eccentric loading
Care has been taken to ensure that the contents of this publication are accurate, but Corus UK Li... more Care has been taken to ensure that the contents of this publication are accurate, but Corus UK Limited and its subsidiary companies do not accept responsibility for errors or for information which is found to be misleading. Suggestions for or descriptions of the end use or application of products or methods of working are for information only and Corus UK Limited and its subsidiaries accept no liability in respect thereof. Before using products supplied or manufactured by Corus UK Limited customers should satisfy themselves of their suitability. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the UK Copyright Licensing Agency, or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organisation outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the publishers, The Steel Construction Institute, at the address given on the title page. Although care has been taken to ensure, to the best of our knowledge, that all data and information contained herein are accurate to the extent that they relate to either matters of fact or accepted practice or matters of opinion at the time of publication, The Steel Construction Institute, the authors and the reviewers assume no responsibility for any errors in or misinterpretations of such data and/or information or any loss or damage arising from or related to their use. iii FOREWORD This publication was collated and edited at Corus Tubes, Corby from original contributions by Dr Stephen Hicks and Mr Gerald Newman of SCI and supplementary text from Mr Mike Edwards and Mr Andrew Orton of Corus. It brings together the latest available information on the design and construction of buildings using concrete filled structural hollow sections and supersedes other publications by Corus and SCI. v Contents
Cost and Value The Steel Construction Institute develops and promotes the effective use of steel ... more Cost and Value The Steel Construction Institute develops and promotes the effective use of steel in construction. It is an independent, membership based organisation. SCI's research and development activities cover many aspects of steel construction including multistorey construction, industrial buildings, bridges, civil engineering and offshore engineering. Forms of construction addressed include steel and composite frames, light steel framing systems and modular construction. Activities encompass guidance on structural design in carbon and stainless steels, dynamic performance, fire engineering, sustainable construction, architectural design, building physics (including design for acoustic and thermal performance), value engineering, and information technology. Membership is open to all organisations and individuals that are concerned with the use of steel in construction. Members include designers, contractors, suppliers, steelwork contractors, academics and government departments in the United Kingdom, elsewhere in Europe and in countries around the world. The SCI's income is derived from subscriptions from its members, revenue from research contracts and consultancy services, publication sales and course fees. The benefits of corporate membership include access to an independent specialist advisory service, free issue of SCI publications as soon as they are produced and free access to Steelbiz, an online technical information system. A Membership Information Pack is available on request from the Membership Manager.
The paper describes the numerical simulations required to estimate the performance of a composite... more The paper describes the numerical simulations required to estimate the performance of a composite slab using a re-entrant profiled steel sheet, prior to conducting a loaded fire test to verify the performance predicted by the simulations and obtain a fire rating according to accepted international standards. The purpose of the simulations was to optimize the design of the composite slab, by eliminating unnecessary reinforcement bars. Heat transfer analysis involving convection, conduction and boundary radiation was undertaken on a detailed solid modelled slab as part of a new steel-concrete slab product development. The simulation accounted for the thermal contact resistance at the cold-formed steel-concrete interface. The novelties of the model to incorporate the temperature dependent formulation of the interface thermal conductance provided a realistic prediction of the cross-sectional temperature field, which matched the fire test measurements. The slab top surface temperatures were assessed according to EN 1363-1:2012 to enable comparisons to be made with the insulation performance criteria. Following the uncoupled heat transfer analysis, the temperatures calculated through the thickness were used as an input into a sequentially coupled thermal-stress analysis of an equivalent shell modelled slab. This was necessary due to the excessive computing time required for the detailed solid modelled concrete slab that was used for the heat transfer analysis. Nevertheless, the calibrated shell that represented the composite slab model accounted for the dissimilar temperature-time (T-t) curves through the slab depth, since the bottom surface, close to the fire source, heats up at a much higher rate than the top surface. From the explicit-quasi static simulation, the load bearing capacity was calculated, which is expressed by the limiting largest deflection and deflection rate for flexural loaded structural members as given in EN 1363-1:2012. From these analyses, it was found that the overall fire resistance was limited by the load bearing capacity criteria. The predicted insulation and load bearing capacity compared very favourably with the fire test measurements, which are also presented in this paper, and provides confidence in the methodology used in this study.
The aim of the project "Large web openings for service integration in composite floors"... more The aim of the project "Large web openings for service integration in composite floors" was to experimentally and theoretically investigate the behaviour of steel and composite beams with web openings. Therefore the works performed in the frame of this project have been subdivided into the following main topics: - design of steel and composite beams with multiple regular or single large web openings under normal (cold) conditions - design software for steel and composite beams with single large web openings and design aids for steel and composite cellular beams - design of steel and composite beams with multiple regular web openings under fire conditions improved manufacture of cellular beams Concerning the design of steel and composite beams with multiple regular or single large web openings under normal (cold) conditions the following tests were performed: - 3 large scale tests on composite beams with multiple regular web openings with the aim to study: - the composite action at the supports of simply supported beams - the behaviour of elongated openings - the influence of load introduction via secondary beams - the influence of highly asymmetrical steel sections - 1 large scale test on a pure steel beam to study the effect of different types of stiffening of web openings - 8 large scale tests on steel and composite beams with unstiffened and stiffened single large web openings in order to study: - the various failure modes - the influence of the size and the position of single large web openings - the influence of the concrete slab - the influence of different types of stiffening All tests could be verified by adequate Finite Element simulations, so that it was possible to perform further parameter studies in order to obtain information in areas not covered by the test programme. Further on extensive Finite Element analyses were performed to get information on the influence of non-centrally placed web openings leading to a simplified theory for the buckling resistance of web posts and an alternative compression field or strut model combining compression and bending in the web post. For composite beams with multiple regular web openings the following main conclusions can be drawn: - in general the failure mode of local instability, i.e. web post buckling, should not be decisive and be avoided by stiffening if necessary; ring stiffeners have been proven to be the most effective way of stiffening - the influence of the load introduction via secondary beams is negligible, if minimum requirements (e.g. for the reinforcement, the strength of the secondary beams and its connection to the main girder, etc.) are met - the influence of asymmetry is not as critical as first though and the limitation given in the codes is too conservative.
Abstract Over the past 36 years, 238 experimental tests have been reported in the literature on c... more Abstract Over the past 36 years, 238 experimental tests have been reported in the literature on concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) columns; different types of concrete infill have been considered: plain, steel fibre and bar reinforced concrete. In these tests, the columns were loaded axially under either concentric or eccentric load, and subjected to the standard ISO 834 fire or its equivalent in a furnace. In this paper, the experimental tests reported in the literature have been used to propose simple design equations to determine the axial capacity of CFST columns. The proposed equations are compared with that presented in DR AS/NZS 2327 and Albero et al.; it is shown that the proposed equations are more accurate. The proposed design procedure has been used for the Auckland International Airport Phase 4 Pier B Extension Project’s structural fire design, brief details of which are presented.
This new guidance document has been written to enable designers to determine the vibration respon... more This new guidance document has been written to enable designers to determine the vibration response of sensitive floors with improved accuracy. It will enable the response to be compared with BS 6472 and ISO 10137 for general structures, and with the specific NHS performance standard for hospitals, Health Technical Memorandum 08-01. It includes design guidance for all types of floor construction using steel members and for a variety of use characteristics. It makes reference to research and measurements in a variety of buildings that have demonstrated the good quality vibration performance that can be achieved with composite floors.
The guideline and background documents have been translated into different languages and publishe... more The guideline and background documents have been translated into different languages and published on a project web page (www.stb.rwth-aachen.de/projekte/2007/HIVOSS/ download.php) that may be easily found by an Internet search for ‘Hivoss’. At this site the guideline and background documents can be downloaded as a free PDF. This download page has received a lot of interest, resulting in 1 900 downloads of the footbridge guideline and 1 000 downloads of the floor guideline up to 30 March 2009.
A finite element numerical model is used to estimate the force displacement backbone curve of ste... more A finite element numerical model is used to estimate the force displacement backbone curve of steel moment frame beam-column-joint subassemblies tested at large scale under repeated cyclic loading with different composite deck slab configurations. The slab configurations included: no-slab; fully isolated slab; two configurations for detailing the slab near the region between the column flanges; and a full depth reinforced slab. Then, a simple analytical model was developed so that designers can estimate the likely peak strength due to slab effect. This analytical model considers the common deformation modes and the strength hierarchy. It was found that the finite element numerical model captured the backbone envelope of experimental tests done on different slab configurations for the bare frame, isolated slab and full depth slab configurations, but overestimated the strength at larger displacements for the other configurations due to difficulty in considering the slab modes of failu...
Composite slab construction is gaining popularity in New Zealand. These slabs may influence beam ... more Composite slab construction is gaining popularity in New Zealand. These slabs may influence beam column joint subassemblies as they are exposed to earthquakeinduced shaking. However, several design issues with composite slabs need to be addressed so that they can be used to their full advantage in design. These relate to considering the effect of the slab on the beam design strength, the likely statistical variation of the beam and slab under strong seismic shocks that will affect the column joint demand, and the resistance of the panel zone. In this paper, experimental test setups are described which consider slab isolation, beam overstrength, full depth slab around the column, low damage connection, and demand on the panel zone. A new concept of slab confinement using a shear key will be presented to form a force transfer mechanism to avoid failure of concrete either in crushing or spalling. Also the development of a non-prying sliding hinge joint low damage connection and its performance with composite slabs is discussed. The outcome of this will be useful to develop simple design recommendations for the New Zealand steel standard.
Please refer to published version for the most recent bibliographic citation information. If a pu... more Please refer to published version for the most recent bibliographic citation information. If a published version is known of, the repository item page linked to above, will contain details on accessing it.
This paper presents some of the innovations that are included within the new Bridge Design Standa... more This paper presents some of the innovations that are included within the new Bridge Design Standard for Steel and Composite Construction AS/NZS 5100.6, which will be the first harmonized standard between Australia and New Zealand for the design of bridges. As Chairs of the Committees responsible for AS/NZS 5100.6 and AS/NZS 2327, the authors of this paper present the challenges faced from the introduction concrete compressive strengths up to 100 MPa and quenched and tempered steels with a yield strength up to 690 MPa. Perhaps one of the most innovative aspects of this standard is the introduction of an appendix that provides design rules for steel products that are not manufactured to Australia and New Zealand standards. This appendix is underpinned by rigorous structural reliability analyses undertaken by Australian and New Zealand researchers, which included the present authors of this paper.
The standard push test specimen in the current version of Eurocode 4 does not provide any informa... more The standard push test specimen in the current version of Eurocode 4 does not provide any information on what modifications should be made when profiled steel sheeting is introduced. Whilst the lack of information was intended to encourage innovation, this has sometimes lead to test results implying that stud connectors possess a lower resistance and ductility than assumed in current Standards. From full-scale beam and companion push tests in Europe, it has been shown that modifying the push test through the introduction of a normal force to the face of the test slabs provides comparable load-slip performance to that encountered within a beam. Within the work programme for developing the second generation of Eurocodes, this paper presents part of the background to Sub-task 1 of SC4.T3, whose aim is to develop an improved push test for Eurocode 4 when stud connectors are welded within profiled steel sheeting.
This database is collected for evaluating the reliability of CFST columns designed by modern code... more This database is collected for evaluating the reliability of CFST columns designed by modern codes of practice (see Thai H-T, Thai S, Ngo T, Uy B, Kang W-H, Hicks SJ. Reliability considerations of modern codes for CFST columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2021;106482). The database contains 3,208 tests including: - 1,305 tests on circular CFST columns under concentric loading - 1,003 tests on rectangular CFST columns under concentric loading - 499 tests on circular CFST columns under eccentric loading - 401 tests on rectangular CFST columns under eccentric loading
Care has been taken to ensure that the contents of this publication are accurate, but Corus UK Li... more Care has been taken to ensure that the contents of this publication are accurate, but Corus UK Limited and its subsidiary companies do not accept responsibility for errors or for information which is found to be misleading. Suggestions for or descriptions of the end use or application of products or methods of working are for information only and Corus UK Limited and its subsidiaries accept no liability in respect thereof. Before using products supplied or manufactured by Corus UK Limited customers should satisfy themselves of their suitability. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the UK Copyright Licensing Agency, or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organisation outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the publishers, The Steel Construction Institute, at the address given on the title page. Although care has been taken to ensure, to the best of our knowledge, that all data and information contained herein are accurate to the extent that they relate to either matters of fact or accepted practice or matters of opinion at the time of publication, The Steel Construction Institute, the authors and the reviewers assume no responsibility for any errors in or misinterpretations of such data and/or information or any loss or damage arising from or related to their use. iii FOREWORD This publication was collated and edited at Corus Tubes, Corby from original contributions by Dr Stephen Hicks and Mr Gerald Newman of SCI and supplementary text from Mr Mike Edwards and Mr Andrew Orton of Corus. It brings together the latest available information on the design and construction of buildings using concrete filled structural hollow sections and supersedes other publications by Corus and SCI. v Contents
Cost and Value The Steel Construction Institute develops and promotes the effective use of steel ... more Cost and Value The Steel Construction Institute develops and promotes the effective use of steel in construction. It is an independent, membership based organisation. SCI's research and development activities cover many aspects of steel construction including multistorey construction, industrial buildings, bridges, civil engineering and offshore engineering. Forms of construction addressed include steel and composite frames, light steel framing systems and modular construction. Activities encompass guidance on structural design in carbon and stainless steels, dynamic performance, fire engineering, sustainable construction, architectural design, building physics (including design for acoustic and thermal performance), value engineering, and information technology. Membership is open to all organisations and individuals that are concerned with the use of steel in construction. Members include designers, contractors, suppliers, steelwork contractors, academics and government departments in the United Kingdom, elsewhere in Europe and in countries around the world. The SCI's income is derived from subscriptions from its members, revenue from research contracts and consultancy services, publication sales and course fees. The benefits of corporate membership include access to an independent specialist advisory service, free issue of SCI publications as soon as they are produced and free access to Steelbiz, an online technical information system. A Membership Information Pack is available on request from the Membership Manager.
The paper describes the numerical simulations required to estimate the performance of a composite... more The paper describes the numerical simulations required to estimate the performance of a composite slab using a re-entrant profiled steel sheet, prior to conducting a loaded fire test to verify the performance predicted by the simulations and obtain a fire rating according to accepted international standards. The purpose of the simulations was to optimize the design of the composite slab, by eliminating unnecessary reinforcement bars. Heat transfer analysis involving convection, conduction and boundary radiation was undertaken on a detailed solid modelled slab as part of a new steel-concrete slab product development. The simulation accounted for the thermal contact resistance at the cold-formed steel-concrete interface. The novelties of the model to incorporate the temperature dependent formulation of the interface thermal conductance provided a realistic prediction of the cross-sectional temperature field, which matched the fire test measurements. The slab top surface temperatures were assessed according to EN 1363-1:2012 to enable comparisons to be made with the insulation performance criteria. Following the uncoupled heat transfer analysis, the temperatures calculated through the thickness were used as an input into a sequentially coupled thermal-stress analysis of an equivalent shell modelled slab. This was necessary due to the excessive computing time required for the detailed solid modelled concrete slab that was used for the heat transfer analysis. Nevertheless, the calibrated shell that represented the composite slab model accounted for the dissimilar temperature-time (T-t) curves through the slab depth, since the bottom surface, close to the fire source, heats up at a much higher rate than the top surface. From the explicit-quasi static simulation, the load bearing capacity was calculated, which is expressed by the limiting largest deflection and deflection rate for flexural loaded structural members as given in EN 1363-1:2012. From these analyses, it was found that the overall fire resistance was limited by the load bearing capacity criteria. The predicted insulation and load bearing capacity compared very favourably with the fire test measurements, which are also presented in this paper, and provides confidence in the methodology used in this study.
The aim of the project "Large web openings for service integration in composite floors"... more The aim of the project "Large web openings for service integration in composite floors" was to experimentally and theoretically investigate the behaviour of steel and composite beams with web openings. Therefore the works performed in the frame of this project have been subdivided into the following main topics: - design of steel and composite beams with multiple regular or single large web openings under normal (cold) conditions - design software for steel and composite beams with single large web openings and design aids for steel and composite cellular beams - design of steel and composite beams with multiple regular web openings under fire conditions improved manufacture of cellular beams Concerning the design of steel and composite beams with multiple regular or single large web openings under normal (cold) conditions the following tests were performed: - 3 large scale tests on composite beams with multiple regular web openings with the aim to study: - the composite action at the supports of simply supported beams - the behaviour of elongated openings - the influence of load introduction via secondary beams - the influence of highly asymmetrical steel sections - 1 large scale test on a pure steel beam to study the effect of different types of stiffening of web openings - 8 large scale tests on steel and composite beams with unstiffened and stiffened single large web openings in order to study: - the various failure modes - the influence of the size and the position of single large web openings - the influence of the concrete slab - the influence of different types of stiffening All tests could be verified by adequate Finite Element simulations, so that it was possible to perform further parameter studies in order to obtain information in areas not covered by the test programme. Further on extensive Finite Element analyses were performed to get information on the influence of non-centrally placed web openings leading to a simplified theory for the buckling resistance of web posts and an alternative compression field or strut model combining compression and bending in the web post. For composite beams with multiple regular web openings the following main conclusions can be drawn: - in general the failure mode of local instability, i.e. web post buckling, should not be decisive and be avoided by stiffening if necessary; ring stiffeners have been proven to be the most effective way of stiffening - the influence of the load introduction via secondary beams is negligible, if minimum requirements (e.g. for the reinforcement, the strength of the secondary beams and its connection to the main girder, etc.) are met - the influence of asymmetry is not as critical as first though and the limitation given in the codes is too conservative.
Abstract Over the past 36 years, 238 experimental tests have been reported in the literature on c... more Abstract Over the past 36 years, 238 experimental tests have been reported in the literature on concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) columns; different types of concrete infill have been considered: plain, steel fibre and bar reinforced concrete. In these tests, the columns were loaded axially under either concentric or eccentric load, and subjected to the standard ISO 834 fire or its equivalent in a furnace. In this paper, the experimental tests reported in the literature have been used to propose simple design equations to determine the axial capacity of CFST columns. The proposed equations are compared with that presented in DR AS/NZS 2327 and Albero et al.; it is shown that the proposed equations are more accurate. The proposed design procedure has been used for the Auckland International Airport Phase 4 Pier B Extension Project’s structural fire design, brief details of which are presented.
Abstract Steadily increasing traffic volumes and traffic loads lead to a continuously growing dem... more Abstract Steadily increasing traffic volumes and traffic loads lead to a continuously growing demand for bridge rehabilitation, strengthening and replacement projects. For existing steel girder bridges with non-composite concrete decks, the traffic load capacity can often be increased significantly if composite action can be created afterwards. Different kinds of shear connectors are more or less suitable for post-installation. Coiled spring pins are one type of interference fit connector that can be installed from below the bridge deck during traffic, in order to minimize the impact on road users. This paper describes an experimental study on the static capacity and stiffness of coiled spring pins used as shear connectors at steel-concrete interfaces. Six push-out test series are presented, with a total of 28 tests, together with an alternative type of test set-up. The results show that the failure of the coiled spring pins is very ductile and that the load capacity is predictable and sufficient for a cost-effective application. The tests also indicate a significantly lower stiffness of the connectors in comparison to welded headed studs of similar dimensions, which might be of great importance if an existing shear connection is strengthened.
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