Conspiracy theories were once perceived as delusions of individuals on the fringes of society, bu... more Conspiracy theories were once perceived as delusions of individuals on the fringes of society, but have become commonplace in mainstream culture. Today, they are produced, consumed, and circulated on various online media environments. From memes on 4chan, QAnon influencers on Instagram, to flat earth or antivaxx videos on YouTube, modern-day conspiracy culture embodies compelling mediated images and narratives that are composed of various audiovisual materials. Building on Stuart Hall’s encoding/decoding model, and Henry Jenkins’ notion of “participatory culture,” we analyze these audiovisual conspiracy theories as “oppositional readings” of hegemonic truths. More concretely, we analyze how conspiracy theorists reconstruct various audiovisual (mass-media) materials into streamlined narratives on YouTube videos to picture opaque power. Based on an in-depth qualitative analysis of 24 conspiracy theory videos, strategically selected from a larger sample of 200, we present three major categories of audiovisual narrative construction in conspiracy videos on YouTube: (1) Simulating: using fiction, religious and cultural images and narratives to render images of events otherwise invisible; (2) Deciphering: decoding hidden messages by “closely reading” images and looking for hidden symbolism; (3) Exhibiting: exposing information, research, and images that are “hidden in plain sight” but point to conspiracy. This article contributes to the growing body of literature on conspiracy theories by showing how they are not just texts, but should better be seen as media practices involving the recontextualizing of (mass)media material into new audiovisual conspiracy theory narratives. This shapes not just their content and form, but also their place in public discourse.
The popularization and normalization of conspiracy theories over the last decade are accompanied ... more The popularization and normalization of conspiracy theories over the last decade are accompanied by concerns over conspiracy theories as irrational beliefs, on the one hand; and their advocates as radical and extremist believers on the other hand. Building on studies emphasizing that such accounts are one-sided at best, and pars pro toto stigmatizations at worst; we propose to study what we call “ participatory conspiracy culture”—the everyday, mundane online debates about conspiracy theories. Based on a 6-month ethnography on Reddit’s r/conspiracy subreddit, an analysis of 242 selected discussions, and supported by digital methods tool 4CAT, this article addresses the question of how people participate in online conspiracy culture. It shows that among the plethora of conspiracy theories discussed online, discussions are heterogeneous, and their participants relate to each other primarily through conflict. Three epistemological positions occur: belief (particularly leading to constant discreditation of others’ beliefs), doubt (particularly as opposed to belief), and play (particularly with the fun of entertaining conspiracy theories without taking them too seriously). We conclude that the participatory conspiracy culture of r/conspiracy is not a homogenous echo chamber of radical belief, but a heterogeneous participatory culture in which belief is fundamentally contested, rather than embraced.
is op dit moment de mooiste vrouw van de wereld?' Deze prangende vraag werd onlangs gesteld aan d... more is op dit moment de mooiste vrouw van de wereld?' Deze prangende vraag werd onlangs gesteld aan de mannelijke lezers van een Nederlands magazine. Het antwoord was opmerkelijk. In de samengestelde top vijf stonden onder andere Lara Croft, de goedgevormde heldin uit het computerspel Tomb Raider, en een digitaal geconstrueerd supermodel van de kunstenaar Micha Klein. Kennelijk lig gen virtuele vrouwen goed in de markt. Op nummer één stond wel een vrouw van vlees en bloed: Pamela Anderson. 'M aar', zo stond in het bijschrift te lezen, 'we weten allemaal dat die ook niet helemaal echt is.' Virtuele vrouwen, siliconenborsten en kunst hebben met elkaar gemeen dat zij 'niet echt' zijn. Het zijn artificiële reproducties van de werkelijkheid. De Franse cultuurfilosoof Jean Baudrillard stelt over dergelijke 'simulacra' dat 'the principle of simulation govems us now, rather than the outdated reality principle.'1 De wes terse mens wordt in zijn visie steeds meer overspoeld met artificiële producten, attracties, televisiebeelden, reproducties en reproducties van reproducties. Vol gens Baudrillard worden deze simulaties van de werkelijkheid steeds vaker gezien als 'echter' (want aantrekkelijker) dan de echte werkelijkheid. De 'top vijf' van mooiste vrouwen is hiervan een illustratie. Er zijn echter steeds meer maatschappelijke verschijnselen aan te treffen die zijn te begrijpen vanuit de visie van Baudrillard. Belangrijk in dit verband zijn de recente ontwikkelingen op het terrein van de nieuwe technologie. Meer dan in andere sectoren van de samenle ving wordt het onderscheid tussen echt en artificieel hier geproblematiseerd. Neem het internet. In cyberspace kunnen mensen virtuele seks hebben of virtu ele steden, landen en werelden bezoeken. Ook kan men hele volkeren uitmoorden zonder dat er een 'echte' dode valt. Men kan, kortom, een heel leven opbouwen in de virtuele realiteit. Is dit leven nu 'echt' of 'onecht'? Mensen die 'lijden' aan, wat sinds kort heet, een Internet Addiction D isorder ervaren hun virtuele bestaan in elk geval als 'echter' (want plezieriger) dan het dagelijkse bestaan daarbuiten. Volgens de antropologe Sherry Turkle heeft dit primair te maken met het feit dat het individu door de anonimiteit van cyberspace minder remmingen heeft en naar hartenlust kan spelen en experimenteren met de eigen identiteit. Waar het 'echte sociale leven' mensen teleurstelt, daar biedt internet uitkomst. In de woorden van
In the social sciences, conspiracy theory is often morally debunked as pathological, irrational a... more In the social sciences, conspiracy theory is often morally debunked as pathological, irrational and dangerous and, essentially, considered a form of ‘religious superstition’. Arguing that this simplistic labelling of conspiracy theory as ‘religious belief’ is primarily a form of ‘boundary work’ to legitimate the epistemic authority of the social sciences, this chapter studies the hybrid character of contemporary conspiracy theory based on the self-understanding of its advocates. The analysis shows that conspiracy culture is an unstable, multi-faced phenomenon that is situated at the intersection of three discourses: secular scepticism, popular sociology, and spiritual salvation. Mixing up secular science and spiritual salvation and simultaneously assessing how the world ‘is’ and how it ‘ought’ to be, may be a horror to academics; for conspiracy theorists it is having the best of both worlds.
This paper argues that New Age is substantially less unambiguously individualistic and more socia... more This paper argues that New Age is substantially less unambiguously individualistic and more socially and publicly significant than today's sociological consensus acknowledges. First, an uncontested doctrine of self-spirituality, characterised by a sacralisation of the self and a demonisation of social institutions, provides the spiritual milieu with ideological coherence and paradoxically accounts for its overwhelming diversity. Second, participants undergo a process of socialisation, gradually adopting this doctrine of self-spirituality and eventually reinforcing it by means of standardised legitimations. Third, spirituality has entered the public sphere of work, aiming at a reduction of employees' alienation to simultaneously increase their happiness and organisational effectiveness. A radical sociologisation of New Age research is called for, documenting how this doctrine ideal of self-spirituality is socially constructed, transmitted and reinforced, and critically deconstructing rather than reproducing sociologically naive New Age rhetoric about the primacy of personal authenticity.
The ubiquity of social media platforms fuels heated discussions about algorithms and selection bi... more The ubiquity of social media platforms fuels heated discussions about algorithms and selection biases leading people into online “echo chambers.” Scholars argue that social media deepen societal polarization and fuel political extremism. However, studies often focus on media effects, disregarding individual agency and (sub)cultural values that shape communication. As a strategic case study, this article, based on a mixed-methods analysis, including a social network and qualitative analysis of 1199 comments under four conspiracy theory comment sections on YouTube, questions how insular these spaces are? And how people in these networks communicate? We find that the discussions in our strategically sampled comments sections lie between homogeneous closed debates and open debates. In other words, the networks in our sample vary in their “echo chamberness.” Based on our findings, we contend that variations in the echo chamberness of the various comment sections can be explained via the ...
INTRODUCTION Our contemporary digital games are filled with religion. Players battle Templars thr... more INTRODUCTION Our contemporary digital games are filled with religion. Players battle Templars through the ages (Assassins Creed series [Ubisoft, 2007–]); fight for the Chantry (Dragon Age: Inquisition [BioWare, 2014]), and against the alien Church of Unitology (Dead Space [Visceral, 2008]). Players may summon and commune with gods from various pantheons – from angels to Greek gods and the ‘fictional’ Aedra of Tamriel (e.g., Shin Megami Tensei series [Atlus, 1992–]; Age of Mythology [Ensemble, 2002]; e.g., The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim [Bethesda, 2011]). Indeed, across genres and platforms, it has previously been assessed that games’ virtual worlds are suffused with such religious and spiritual narratives, cosmologies, narratives, symbols and rituals (Krzywinska, 2006; Aupers, 2007; Campbell et al., 2014). Given the fact that most of such studies are based on textual content analysis (e.g., Šisler 2008; Trattner, 2016; Bosman, 2016), which analyze ingame representations of religion; th...
Conspiracy theories were once perceived as delusions of individuals on the fringes of society, bu... more Conspiracy theories were once perceived as delusions of individuals on the fringes of society, but have become commonplace in mainstream culture. Today, they are produced, consumed, and circulated on various online media environments. From memes on 4chan, QAnon influencers on Instagram, to flat earth or antivaxx videos on YouTube, modern-day conspiracy culture embodies compelling mediated images and narratives that are composed of various audiovisual materials. Building on Stuart Hall’s encoding/decoding model, and Henry Jenkins’ notion of “participatory culture,” we analyze these audiovisual conspiracy theories as “oppositional readings” of hegemonic truths. More concretely, we analyze how conspiracy theorists reconstruct various audiovisual (mass-media) materials into streamlined narratives on YouTube videos to picture opaque power. Based on an in-depth qualitative analysis of 24 conspiracy theory videos, strategically selected from a larger sample of 200, we present three major categories of audiovisual narrative construction in conspiracy videos on YouTube: (1) Simulating: using fiction, religious and cultural images and narratives to render images of events otherwise invisible; (2) Deciphering: decoding hidden messages by “closely reading” images and looking for hidden symbolism; (3) Exhibiting: exposing information, research, and images that are “hidden in plain sight” but point to conspiracy. This article contributes to the growing body of literature on conspiracy theories by showing how they are not just texts, but should better be seen as media practices involving the recontextualizing of (mass)media material into new audiovisual conspiracy theory narratives. This shapes not just their content and form, but also their place in public discourse.
The popularization and normalization of conspiracy theories over the last decade are accompanied ... more The popularization and normalization of conspiracy theories over the last decade are accompanied by concerns over conspiracy theories as irrational beliefs, on the one hand; and their advocates as radical and extremist believers on the other hand. Building on studies emphasizing that such accounts are one-sided at best, and pars pro toto stigmatizations at worst; we propose to study what we call “ participatory conspiracy culture”—the everyday, mundane online debates about conspiracy theories. Based on a 6-month ethnography on Reddit’s r/conspiracy subreddit, an analysis of 242 selected discussions, and supported by digital methods tool 4CAT, this article addresses the question of how people participate in online conspiracy culture. It shows that among the plethora of conspiracy theories discussed online, discussions are heterogeneous, and their participants relate to each other primarily through conflict. Three epistemological positions occur: belief (particularly leading to constant discreditation of others’ beliefs), doubt (particularly as opposed to belief), and play (particularly with the fun of entertaining conspiracy theories without taking them too seriously). We conclude that the participatory conspiracy culture of r/conspiracy is not a homogenous echo chamber of radical belief, but a heterogeneous participatory culture in which belief is fundamentally contested, rather than embraced.
is op dit moment de mooiste vrouw van de wereld?' Deze prangende vraag werd onlangs gesteld aan d... more is op dit moment de mooiste vrouw van de wereld?' Deze prangende vraag werd onlangs gesteld aan de mannelijke lezers van een Nederlands magazine. Het antwoord was opmerkelijk. In de samengestelde top vijf stonden onder andere Lara Croft, de goedgevormde heldin uit het computerspel Tomb Raider, en een digitaal geconstrueerd supermodel van de kunstenaar Micha Klein. Kennelijk lig gen virtuele vrouwen goed in de markt. Op nummer één stond wel een vrouw van vlees en bloed: Pamela Anderson. 'M aar', zo stond in het bijschrift te lezen, 'we weten allemaal dat die ook niet helemaal echt is.' Virtuele vrouwen, siliconenborsten en kunst hebben met elkaar gemeen dat zij 'niet echt' zijn. Het zijn artificiële reproducties van de werkelijkheid. De Franse cultuurfilosoof Jean Baudrillard stelt over dergelijke 'simulacra' dat 'the principle of simulation govems us now, rather than the outdated reality principle.'1 De wes terse mens wordt in zijn visie steeds meer overspoeld met artificiële producten, attracties, televisiebeelden, reproducties en reproducties van reproducties. Vol gens Baudrillard worden deze simulaties van de werkelijkheid steeds vaker gezien als 'echter' (want aantrekkelijker) dan de echte werkelijkheid. De 'top vijf' van mooiste vrouwen is hiervan een illustratie. Er zijn echter steeds meer maatschappelijke verschijnselen aan te treffen die zijn te begrijpen vanuit de visie van Baudrillard. Belangrijk in dit verband zijn de recente ontwikkelingen op het terrein van de nieuwe technologie. Meer dan in andere sectoren van de samenle ving wordt het onderscheid tussen echt en artificieel hier geproblematiseerd. Neem het internet. In cyberspace kunnen mensen virtuele seks hebben of virtu ele steden, landen en werelden bezoeken. Ook kan men hele volkeren uitmoorden zonder dat er een 'echte' dode valt. Men kan, kortom, een heel leven opbouwen in de virtuele realiteit. Is dit leven nu 'echt' of 'onecht'? Mensen die 'lijden' aan, wat sinds kort heet, een Internet Addiction D isorder ervaren hun virtuele bestaan in elk geval als 'echter' (want plezieriger) dan het dagelijkse bestaan daarbuiten. Volgens de antropologe Sherry Turkle heeft dit primair te maken met het feit dat het individu door de anonimiteit van cyberspace minder remmingen heeft en naar hartenlust kan spelen en experimenteren met de eigen identiteit. Waar het 'echte sociale leven' mensen teleurstelt, daar biedt internet uitkomst. In de woorden van
In the social sciences, conspiracy theory is often morally debunked as pathological, irrational a... more In the social sciences, conspiracy theory is often morally debunked as pathological, irrational and dangerous and, essentially, considered a form of ‘religious superstition’. Arguing that this simplistic labelling of conspiracy theory as ‘religious belief’ is primarily a form of ‘boundary work’ to legitimate the epistemic authority of the social sciences, this chapter studies the hybrid character of contemporary conspiracy theory based on the self-understanding of its advocates. The analysis shows that conspiracy culture is an unstable, multi-faced phenomenon that is situated at the intersection of three discourses: secular scepticism, popular sociology, and spiritual salvation. Mixing up secular science and spiritual salvation and simultaneously assessing how the world ‘is’ and how it ‘ought’ to be, may be a horror to academics; for conspiracy theorists it is having the best of both worlds.
This paper argues that New Age is substantially less unambiguously individualistic and more socia... more This paper argues that New Age is substantially less unambiguously individualistic and more socially and publicly significant than today's sociological consensus acknowledges. First, an uncontested doctrine of self-spirituality, characterised by a sacralisation of the self and a demonisation of social institutions, provides the spiritual milieu with ideological coherence and paradoxically accounts for its overwhelming diversity. Second, participants undergo a process of socialisation, gradually adopting this doctrine of self-spirituality and eventually reinforcing it by means of standardised legitimations. Third, spirituality has entered the public sphere of work, aiming at a reduction of employees' alienation to simultaneously increase their happiness and organisational effectiveness. A radical sociologisation of New Age research is called for, documenting how this doctrine ideal of self-spirituality is socially constructed, transmitted and reinforced, and critically deconstructing rather than reproducing sociologically naive New Age rhetoric about the primacy of personal authenticity.
The ubiquity of social media platforms fuels heated discussions about algorithms and selection bi... more The ubiquity of social media platforms fuels heated discussions about algorithms and selection biases leading people into online “echo chambers.” Scholars argue that social media deepen societal polarization and fuel political extremism. However, studies often focus on media effects, disregarding individual agency and (sub)cultural values that shape communication. As a strategic case study, this article, based on a mixed-methods analysis, including a social network and qualitative analysis of 1199 comments under four conspiracy theory comment sections on YouTube, questions how insular these spaces are? And how people in these networks communicate? We find that the discussions in our strategically sampled comments sections lie between homogeneous closed debates and open debates. In other words, the networks in our sample vary in their “echo chamberness.” Based on our findings, we contend that variations in the echo chamberness of the various comment sections can be explained via the ...
INTRODUCTION Our contemporary digital games are filled with religion. Players battle Templars thr... more INTRODUCTION Our contemporary digital games are filled with religion. Players battle Templars through the ages (Assassins Creed series [Ubisoft, 2007–]); fight for the Chantry (Dragon Age: Inquisition [BioWare, 2014]), and against the alien Church of Unitology (Dead Space [Visceral, 2008]). Players may summon and commune with gods from various pantheons – from angels to Greek gods and the ‘fictional’ Aedra of Tamriel (e.g., Shin Megami Tensei series [Atlus, 1992–]; Age of Mythology [Ensemble, 2002]; e.g., The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim [Bethesda, 2011]). Indeed, across genres and platforms, it has previously been assessed that games’ virtual worlds are suffused with such religious and spiritual narratives, cosmologies, narratives, symbols and rituals (Krzywinska, 2006; Aupers, 2007; Campbell et al., 2014). Given the fact that most of such studies are based on textual content analysis (e.g., Šisler 2008; Trattner, 2016; Bosman, 2016), which analyze ingame representations of religion; th...
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