Guidelines for Land-FILTER and Catchment-FILTER systems to reuse wastewater in China v FOREWORD C... more Guidelines for Land-FILTER and Catchment-FILTER systems to reuse wastewater in China v FOREWORD Communities and governments in many countries are concerned about preventing the pollution of natural water bodies such as streams, rivers, lakes and seas by release of untreated or inadequately treated wastewaters. Such pollution of natural water bodies can reduce the potential downstream reuse of the water and poses risks to agriculture, fisheries and public health. Furthermore, in many countries urban expansion and industrialisation has led to more water being diverted for domestic and industrial uses, thereby decreasing the future water supplies for agriculture and other uses. In China, irrigated lands produce two thirds of the total crop production. However, irrigation water supplies are rapidly diminishing by diversion to meet the needs of increased urbanisation and industrialisation. This in turn causes production of more wastewater, which has led to increased environmental pollution. Therefore, wastewater treatment and reuse options need to be developed to offset these increasing demands on scarce fresh water supplies and to address the increasing water pollution problems. Predictions of future climatic changes due to global warming which could lead to increased water demands and associated supply scarcities emphasise the need to consider appropriate wastewater treatment and reuse strategies, including new cost-effective techniques. The specific combination of wastewater treatment, reuse and release techniques suited for adoption in a rural, urbanised or industrialised area of any river catchment will vary according to local factors in different regions of China. These factors which need to be considered holistically include the local demand for renovated water, the need to maintain adequate downstream environmental flows in rivers and streams, suitability and availability of land for irrigated cropping with wastewater and factors which influence the suitability and the cost effectiveness of other potential reuses for wastewater. Chemical and engineering wastewater treatment plants are commonly used in Europe, North America and Australia, and in some Chinese cities. The capital and operating cost of these plants makes them unattractive options for developing countries and rural areas of developed countries, and therefore cheaper land based treatment and reuse techniques adapted to local conditions are more attractive. The development of alternative land based treatment and reuse techniques needs to address any Guidelines for Land-FILTER and Catchment-FILTER systems to reuse wastewater in China vi deficiencies and disadvantages of the existing techniques under different local site conditions, to encourage adoption of these alternative techniques. Current water pollution problems and wastewater reuse in China Surveys in China indicate severe pollution in many rivers, lakes, bays, groundwater and coastal areas. For instance, the proportions of sewage and industrial effluent treated before discharge in 1985 were less than 3 % and 22 %, respectively. Some lakes, bays and rivers close to cities receive large quantities of untreated wastewater, thereby diminishing their potential function of providing drinking water supplies, recreation, tourism and commercial use for fisheries. In a survey of 878 rivers in the early 1980s, it was found that 82 % were polluted to some degree and more than 5 % of total river length had become devoid of fish. These surveys indicate that more than 85 % of the pollution load in China comes from nine thousand point-source polluters. Major pollutants include organic matter, nutrients, heavy metals and other toxic chemicals. The presence of excess nutrients in wastewater discharge can cause algal blooms in water bodies. Algal blooms make the water unsuitable for consumption by
Using the philosophy of system thinking, this paper conceptualizes the dynamics governing major s... more Using the philosophy of system thinking, this paper conceptualizes the dynamics governing major structural and non-structural measures for rehabilitation of irrigation networks aimed at improving the irrigation utilities. The dynamics of improvement of irrigation networks is studied, on the basis of indicators such as adequacy, efficiency, equity, flexibility and dependability. In the present paper, the application of system dynamics analysis is demonstrated by applying it to six irrigation areas in Iran to present irrigation causal loop diagrams. The results, specifically for the Qazvin irrigation network, have been documented based on the facts. For the Qazvin irrigation network, system utility not only improves through increase in investment planning, but through conjunctive water management, reducing social constraints, and control of crop patterns and the cultivated area. Reduction of social and legal constraints with change of structural and non-structural measures to longer-term sustainable measures is more effective than the other policies. As a conclusion it could be stated that the system dynamics approach can be successfully applied to integrated analysis of irrigation network policy options, as well as to identification of key factors leading to degradation of irrigation networks and how to make effective decisions to sustain system utility over time.
In the study, we analyze and assess quantitatively the spatial pattern of vegetation and its ecol... more In the study, we analyze and assess quantitatively the spatial pattern of vegetation and its ecological degradation information in the Honghe National Nature Reserve (HNNR), a Ramsar-designated site in Northeast China. Statistics from historical survey data are used to measure the degradation of marshes over time and changes in the hydrological regime. Long-term statistical data are also employed to analyze both natural and human impacts on these changes. Both the wetland degradation model and its mechanisms are discussed in this paper. The research finds that the loss of water and other types of degradation in the vegetation habitat caused by the rapid deterioration of the hydrological regime has threatened the status of HNNR as a "storage area of natural genes." Scientifically constructed strategies are urgently required to ensure sustainable economic benefits that do not adversely affect this nature reserve.
Wetlands are among the most valuable ecosystems in the world and are crucial in supporting biodiv... more Wetlands are among the most valuable ecosystems in the world and are crucial in supporting biodiversity. They also provide space for storing surface waters, where intense biological processing occurs that helps improve water quality. Human activities, particularly irrigated agriculture and urban developments instigating water diversions from rivers, have altered the hydrology of most wetlands. The Lower Murrumbidgee wetland, located in the Murrumbidgee River Catchment, is an example and is one of the significant wetlands across the Murray Darling Basin of Australia. Historic estimates show the volumes of water ranged from none in dry years to about 300 to 400 GL (1 GL ¼ 10 9 L) in an average and wet year, respectively. The flows reaching the Lower Murrumbidgee wetland have been drastically reduced by at least 60% because of the upstream diversions introduced during the last century. These reductions have adversely affected the health of natural vegetation and agricultural crops in the Lower Murrumbidgee floodplain. This article presents the results of the quantification of total water consumption of various land uses in the Lower Murrumbidgee floodplain using the remote sensing-based Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) modeling approach. The spatial analysis of actual evapotranspiration (ET a) shows that ET a rates are the highest (13-26%) for the red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) forests both in summer and winter days. However, in terms of total ET a volume, lignum (Muehlenbeckia florulenta) constitutes the most significant part, which is around 14-30% of the total ET a volume for the area. Actual evapotranspiration from winter cereal cropping areas following the summer ponding is the third highest consumer of water after the river red gum and lignum. Actual evapotranspiration from the fallow land is also significant, representing 5-28% of total ET a from the region. In view of the extent of the unaccounted flows in the overall water balance of the system, there is a need to upgrade measuring and reporting infrastructure by strengthening the institutional and management arrangements to better gauge the efficiency of environmental and consumptive water use. The state-of-the-art technology of remote sensing-based SEBAL modeling proved to have potential for measuring actual water use with reliable accuracy and can be used for assessing the environmental and productive use of water from wetlands in other regions of Australia.
Public-private partnerships have been implemented throughout the world since the 1970s with mixed... more Public-private partnerships have been implemented throughout the world since the 1970s with mixed results. This is mainly due to the lack of long run commitments from governments and other parties involved, lack of scientific understanding regarding clear short term and long-term potential biophysical and socioeconomic , policy and legal consequences, and lack of trust between the partners. We present a Regional Irrigation Business Partnership (RIBP) model, which is capable of efficiently utilising research output and government policies for sustainable public-private irrigation planning and investment. Unlike other public-private partnership models, the RIBP is based on robust assessment of biophysical, hydrologic, socioeconomic , political and legal aspects of water management. The RIBP model provides a crucial link between research and infrastructure investments while minimising short-term and long-term risks. The business investment framework involves iterative feedback from research and policy for identifying markets, defining products and establishing a legislatively and institutionally acceptable route to market as part of the feasibility assessment process. The RIBP model is based on the principle that sharing risks, rewards, and responsibilities coupled with sufficient investment incentives will motivate actors in water management to invest in irrigation infrastructure that saves water and generates better outcomes for the environment. We describe application of the RIBP model in the Coleambally Irrigation Area in New South Wales, Australia.
Globally, about 10 Mha of agricultural land is lost annually due to salinisation, of which about ... more Globally, about 10 Mha of agricultural land is lost annually due to salinisation, of which about 1.5 Mha is in irrigated areas. While some climate and management aspects are common to semi-arid regions, the detailed mechanisms and options to secure ecological sustainability and economic viability may vary considerably from case to case. This paper applies a whole of system-water balance to compare irrigation in three semi-arid regions suffering from similar sustainability issues: Rechna Doab (RD), Pakistan; the Liuyuankou irrigation system (LIS), China; and Murrumbidgee irrigation area (MIA), Australia. Soil salinity, lack of adequate water resources and groundwater management are major issues in these areas. The MIA and LIS irrigation systems also suffer from soil salinity and low water-use efficiency issues. These similarities occur in spite of very different climatic and underlying hydrogeological conditions. The key data used to compare these different regions are climate and soils, available water resources and their use, as well as components of the water balance. In addition, the history of water resource development in these areas is examined to understand how salinity problems emerge in semi-arid regions and the consequences for production. Based on the efficiency parameters and the definitions of sustainability, approaches are explored to solve common environmental problems while maintaining economic viability and environmental sustainability for irrigation systems.
Most government policies and community perception of the irrigation sector promotes the conversio... more Most government policies and community perception of the irrigation sector promotes the conversion from gravity-fed to pressurised irrigation methods as a way of reducing water consumption by the irrigation sector. However, optimising for one aspect of a system can have unintended resource and environmental consequences e.g. an increase in energy consumption patterns of irrigated crops. Two Australian irrigation areas were studied: a surface-water supplied region in New South Wales; and a groundwater dependent region in South Australia. The water and energy budgets for crop production from land preparation to harvest were quantified on several farms. Converting from flood to pressurised systems resulted in a reduction in water application of between 10% and 66%. However, in the surfacewater supplied region, it also resulted in energy consumption being increased by up to 163%. In the groundwater dependent region, energy consumption was reduced by 12% to 44%. There is potential to reduce energy consumption due to increased water use efficiency, resulting in less water being pumped due to efficiency gains. Therefore, to optimise energy and water use, it is recommended that pressurised irrigation systems be used in areas requiring pressurised extraction of groundwater, while efficient gravity based irrigation methods, coupled with good management practices, be promoted in surface-water supplied areas.
Waterlogging and salinity problems in major rice growing areas demand policies aimed at better ma... more Waterlogging and salinity problems in major rice growing areas demand policies aimed at better management of land and water resources. This process can be facilitated through regional scale spatially distributed hydrologic–economic models that capture and integrate point scale processes at paddock, farm and irrigation area levels. The study develops an integrated hydrologic–economic framework that integrates hydrologic and economic responses for
This paper presents a GIS framework for multi-criteria evaluation of land suitability for the exp... more This paper presents a GIS framework for multi-criteria evaluation of land suitability for the expansion or retirement of irrigated cropland at a catchment scale in Australia. This framework is based on the fuzzy linguistic ordered weighted averaging (FLOWA) approach which integrates ...
This paper provides a comprehensive review of literature related to the assessment of climate cha... more This paper provides a comprehensive review of literature related to the assessment of climate change impacts on crop productivity using climate, water and crop yield models. The existing studies present that climate change models with higher spatial resolution can be a way forward for future climate projections. Meanwhile, stochastic projections of more than one climate model are necessary for providing insights into model uncertainties as well as to develop risk management strategies. It is projected that water availability will increase in some parts of the world, which will have its own effect on water use efficiency and water allocation. Crop production can increase if irrigated areas are expanded or irrigation is intensified, but these may increase the rate of environmental degradation. Since climate change impacts on soil water balance will lead to changes of soil evaporation and plant transpiration, consequently, the crop growth period may shorten in the future impacting on water productivity. Crop yields affected by climate change are projected to be different in various areas, in some areas crop yields will increase, and for other areas it will decrease depending on the latitude of the area and irrigation application. Existing modelling results show that an increase in precipitation will increase crop yield, and what is more, crop yield is more sensitive to the precipitation than temperature. If water availability is reduced in the future, soils of high water holding capacity will be better to reduce the impact of drought while maintaining crop yield. With the temperature increasing and precipitation fluctuations, water availability and crop production are likely to decrease in the future. If the irrigated areas are expanded, the total crop production will increase; however, food and environmental quality may degrade.
Estimation of channel seepage is an essential task in improving the management of earthen channel... more Estimation of channel seepage is an essential task in improving the management of earthen channel systems. The spatial distribution of seepage rates along the channels must be quantified to establish the economic and environmental merit of reducing conveyance losses. In ...
Guidelines for Land-FILTER and Catchment-FILTER systems to reuse wastewater in China v FOREWORD C... more Guidelines for Land-FILTER and Catchment-FILTER systems to reuse wastewater in China v FOREWORD Communities and governments in many countries are concerned about preventing the pollution of natural water bodies such as streams, rivers, lakes and seas by release of untreated or inadequately treated wastewaters. Such pollution of natural water bodies can reduce the potential downstream reuse of the water and poses risks to agriculture, fisheries and public health. Furthermore, in many countries urban expansion and industrialisation has led to more water being diverted for domestic and industrial uses, thereby decreasing the future water supplies for agriculture and other uses. In China, irrigated lands produce two thirds of the total crop production. However, irrigation water supplies are rapidly diminishing by diversion to meet the needs of increased urbanisation and industrialisation. This in turn causes production of more wastewater, which has led to increased environmental pollution. Therefore, wastewater treatment and reuse options need to be developed to offset these increasing demands on scarce fresh water supplies and to address the increasing water pollution problems. Predictions of future climatic changes due to global warming which could lead to increased water demands and associated supply scarcities emphasise the need to consider appropriate wastewater treatment and reuse strategies, including new cost-effective techniques. The specific combination of wastewater treatment, reuse and release techniques suited for adoption in a rural, urbanised or industrialised area of any river catchment will vary according to local factors in different regions of China. These factors which need to be considered holistically include the local demand for renovated water, the need to maintain adequate downstream environmental flows in rivers and streams, suitability and availability of land for irrigated cropping with wastewater and factors which influence the suitability and the cost effectiveness of other potential reuses for wastewater. Chemical and engineering wastewater treatment plants are commonly used in Europe, North America and Australia, and in some Chinese cities. The capital and operating cost of these plants makes them unattractive options for developing countries and rural areas of developed countries, and therefore cheaper land based treatment and reuse techniques adapted to local conditions are more attractive. The development of alternative land based treatment and reuse techniques needs to address any Guidelines for Land-FILTER and Catchment-FILTER systems to reuse wastewater in China vi deficiencies and disadvantages of the existing techniques under different local site conditions, to encourage adoption of these alternative techniques. Current water pollution problems and wastewater reuse in China Surveys in China indicate severe pollution in many rivers, lakes, bays, groundwater and coastal areas. For instance, the proportions of sewage and industrial effluent treated before discharge in 1985 were less than 3 % and 22 %, respectively. Some lakes, bays and rivers close to cities receive large quantities of untreated wastewater, thereby diminishing their potential function of providing drinking water supplies, recreation, tourism and commercial use for fisheries. In a survey of 878 rivers in the early 1980s, it was found that 82 % were polluted to some degree and more than 5 % of total river length had become devoid of fish. These surveys indicate that more than 85 % of the pollution load in China comes from nine thousand point-source polluters. Major pollutants include organic matter, nutrients, heavy metals and other toxic chemicals. The presence of excess nutrients in wastewater discharge can cause algal blooms in water bodies. Algal blooms make the water unsuitable for consumption by
Using the philosophy of system thinking, this paper conceptualizes the dynamics governing major s... more Using the philosophy of system thinking, this paper conceptualizes the dynamics governing major structural and non-structural measures for rehabilitation of irrigation networks aimed at improving the irrigation utilities. The dynamics of improvement of irrigation networks is studied, on the basis of indicators such as adequacy, efficiency, equity, flexibility and dependability. In the present paper, the application of system dynamics analysis is demonstrated by applying it to six irrigation areas in Iran to present irrigation causal loop diagrams. The results, specifically for the Qazvin irrigation network, have been documented based on the facts. For the Qazvin irrigation network, system utility not only improves through increase in investment planning, but through conjunctive water management, reducing social constraints, and control of crop patterns and the cultivated area. Reduction of social and legal constraints with change of structural and non-structural measures to longer-term sustainable measures is more effective than the other policies. As a conclusion it could be stated that the system dynamics approach can be successfully applied to integrated analysis of irrigation network policy options, as well as to identification of key factors leading to degradation of irrigation networks and how to make effective decisions to sustain system utility over time.
In the study, we analyze and assess quantitatively the spatial pattern of vegetation and its ecol... more In the study, we analyze and assess quantitatively the spatial pattern of vegetation and its ecological degradation information in the Honghe National Nature Reserve (HNNR), a Ramsar-designated site in Northeast China. Statistics from historical survey data are used to measure the degradation of marshes over time and changes in the hydrological regime. Long-term statistical data are also employed to analyze both natural and human impacts on these changes. Both the wetland degradation model and its mechanisms are discussed in this paper. The research finds that the loss of water and other types of degradation in the vegetation habitat caused by the rapid deterioration of the hydrological regime has threatened the status of HNNR as a "storage area of natural genes." Scientifically constructed strategies are urgently required to ensure sustainable economic benefits that do not adversely affect this nature reserve.
Wetlands are among the most valuable ecosystems in the world and are crucial in supporting biodiv... more Wetlands are among the most valuable ecosystems in the world and are crucial in supporting biodiversity. They also provide space for storing surface waters, where intense biological processing occurs that helps improve water quality. Human activities, particularly irrigated agriculture and urban developments instigating water diversions from rivers, have altered the hydrology of most wetlands. The Lower Murrumbidgee wetland, located in the Murrumbidgee River Catchment, is an example and is one of the significant wetlands across the Murray Darling Basin of Australia. Historic estimates show the volumes of water ranged from none in dry years to about 300 to 400 GL (1 GL ¼ 10 9 L) in an average and wet year, respectively. The flows reaching the Lower Murrumbidgee wetland have been drastically reduced by at least 60% because of the upstream diversions introduced during the last century. These reductions have adversely affected the health of natural vegetation and agricultural crops in the Lower Murrumbidgee floodplain. This article presents the results of the quantification of total water consumption of various land uses in the Lower Murrumbidgee floodplain using the remote sensing-based Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) modeling approach. The spatial analysis of actual evapotranspiration (ET a) shows that ET a rates are the highest (13-26%) for the red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) forests both in summer and winter days. However, in terms of total ET a volume, lignum (Muehlenbeckia florulenta) constitutes the most significant part, which is around 14-30% of the total ET a volume for the area. Actual evapotranspiration from winter cereal cropping areas following the summer ponding is the third highest consumer of water after the river red gum and lignum. Actual evapotranspiration from the fallow land is also significant, representing 5-28% of total ET a from the region. In view of the extent of the unaccounted flows in the overall water balance of the system, there is a need to upgrade measuring and reporting infrastructure by strengthening the institutional and management arrangements to better gauge the efficiency of environmental and consumptive water use. The state-of-the-art technology of remote sensing-based SEBAL modeling proved to have potential for measuring actual water use with reliable accuracy and can be used for assessing the environmental and productive use of water from wetlands in other regions of Australia.
Public-private partnerships have been implemented throughout the world since the 1970s with mixed... more Public-private partnerships have been implemented throughout the world since the 1970s with mixed results. This is mainly due to the lack of long run commitments from governments and other parties involved, lack of scientific understanding regarding clear short term and long-term potential biophysical and socioeconomic , policy and legal consequences, and lack of trust between the partners. We present a Regional Irrigation Business Partnership (RIBP) model, which is capable of efficiently utilising research output and government policies for sustainable public-private irrigation planning and investment. Unlike other public-private partnership models, the RIBP is based on robust assessment of biophysical, hydrologic, socioeconomic , political and legal aspects of water management. The RIBP model provides a crucial link between research and infrastructure investments while minimising short-term and long-term risks. The business investment framework involves iterative feedback from research and policy for identifying markets, defining products and establishing a legislatively and institutionally acceptable route to market as part of the feasibility assessment process. The RIBP model is based on the principle that sharing risks, rewards, and responsibilities coupled with sufficient investment incentives will motivate actors in water management to invest in irrigation infrastructure that saves water and generates better outcomes for the environment. We describe application of the RIBP model in the Coleambally Irrigation Area in New South Wales, Australia.
Globally, about 10 Mha of agricultural land is lost annually due to salinisation, of which about ... more Globally, about 10 Mha of agricultural land is lost annually due to salinisation, of which about 1.5 Mha is in irrigated areas. While some climate and management aspects are common to semi-arid regions, the detailed mechanisms and options to secure ecological sustainability and economic viability may vary considerably from case to case. This paper applies a whole of system-water balance to compare irrigation in three semi-arid regions suffering from similar sustainability issues: Rechna Doab (RD), Pakistan; the Liuyuankou irrigation system (LIS), China; and Murrumbidgee irrigation area (MIA), Australia. Soil salinity, lack of adequate water resources and groundwater management are major issues in these areas. The MIA and LIS irrigation systems also suffer from soil salinity and low water-use efficiency issues. These similarities occur in spite of very different climatic and underlying hydrogeological conditions. The key data used to compare these different regions are climate and soils, available water resources and their use, as well as components of the water balance. In addition, the history of water resource development in these areas is examined to understand how salinity problems emerge in semi-arid regions and the consequences for production. Based on the efficiency parameters and the definitions of sustainability, approaches are explored to solve common environmental problems while maintaining economic viability and environmental sustainability for irrigation systems.
Most government policies and community perception of the irrigation sector promotes the conversio... more Most government policies and community perception of the irrigation sector promotes the conversion from gravity-fed to pressurised irrigation methods as a way of reducing water consumption by the irrigation sector. However, optimising for one aspect of a system can have unintended resource and environmental consequences e.g. an increase in energy consumption patterns of irrigated crops. Two Australian irrigation areas were studied: a surface-water supplied region in New South Wales; and a groundwater dependent region in South Australia. The water and energy budgets for crop production from land preparation to harvest were quantified on several farms. Converting from flood to pressurised systems resulted in a reduction in water application of between 10% and 66%. However, in the surfacewater supplied region, it also resulted in energy consumption being increased by up to 163%. In the groundwater dependent region, energy consumption was reduced by 12% to 44%. There is potential to reduce energy consumption due to increased water use efficiency, resulting in less water being pumped due to efficiency gains. Therefore, to optimise energy and water use, it is recommended that pressurised irrigation systems be used in areas requiring pressurised extraction of groundwater, while efficient gravity based irrigation methods, coupled with good management practices, be promoted in surface-water supplied areas.
Waterlogging and salinity problems in major rice growing areas demand policies aimed at better ma... more Waterlogging and salinity problems in major rice growing areas demand policies aimed at better management of land and water resources. This process can be facilitated through regional scale spatially distributed hydrologic–economic models that capture and integrate point scale processes at paddock, farm and irrigation area levels. The study develops an integrated hydrologic–economic framework that integrates hydrologic and economic responses for
This paper presents a GIS framework for multi-criteria evaluation of land suitability for the exp... more This paper presents a GIS framework for multi-criteria evaluation of land suitability for the expansion or retirement of irrigated cropland at a catchment scale in Australia. This framework is based on the fuzzy linguistic ordered weighted averaging (FLOWA) approach which integrates ...
This paper provides a comprehensive review of literature related to the assessment of climate cha... more This paper provides a comprehensive review of literature related to the assessment of climate change impacts on crop productivity using climate, water and crop yield models. The existing studies present that climate change models with higher spatial resolution can be a way forward for future climate projections. Meanwhile, stochastic projections of more than one climate model are necessary for providing insights into model uncertainties as well as to develop risk management strategies. It is projected that water availability will increase in some parts of the world, which will have its own effect on water use efficiency and water allocation. Crop production can increase if irrigated areas are expanded or irrigation is intensified, but these may increase the rate of environmental degradation. Since climate change impacts on soil water balance will lead to changes of soil evaporation and plant transpiration, consequently, the crop growth period may shorten in the future impacting on water productivity. Crop yields affected by climate change are projected to be different in various areas, in some areas crop yields will increase, and for other areas it will decrease depending on the latitude of the area and irrigation application. Existing modelling results show that an increase in precipitation will increase crop yield, and what is more, crop yield is more sensitive to the precipitation than temperature. If water availability is reduced in the future, soils of high water holding capacity will be better to reduce the impact of drought while maintaining crop yield. With the temperature increasing and precipitation fluctuations, water availability and crop production are likely to decrease in the future. If the irrigated areas are expanded, the total crop production will increase; however, food and environmental quality may degrade.
Estimation of channel seepage is an essential task in improving the management of earthen channel... more Estimation of channel seepage is an essential task in improving the management of earthen channel systems. The spatial distribution of seepage rates along the channels must be quantified to establish the economic and environmental merit of reducing conveyance losses. In ...
Uploads
Papers by Shahbaz Khan