This book provides a reference for sport psychology lecturers, students, coaches and other profes... more This book provides a reference for sport psychology lecturers, students, coaches and other professionals with an interest in the field. Self-belief, known as 'self-efficacy' by sports psychologists is widely believed to be an essential component of sporting success. This book examines the nature of efficacy as it applies to sporting behaviour in coaches, athletes and teams. It is the first reference book entirely devoted to the concept of self-efficacy in sport. It provides readers with a basic background of research on the topic, as well as current and future trends; offers research-tested guidelines and recommendations for using efficacy techniques with individual athletes and teams; and, includes a comprehensive annotated bibliography of references on the topic.
This study explored the relation between athletes' sleep quality and imagery ability. A total of ... more This study explored the relation between athletes' sleep quality and imagery ability. A total of 201 athletes (39.3% female, 60.7% male; Mage = 23.28 years, SD = 6.00) completed the Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire (SIAQ) and the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). Simple regression analyses revealed that global sleep quality predicted affect imagery ability. Multiple regression analyses revealed that daytime dysfunction predicted global imagery ability as well as skill, strategy, affect, and mastery imagery ability dimensions. In addition, use of sleeping medication predicted global imagery ability, as well as goal and affect imagery ability dimensions. Results provide some support for Cumming and Williams' (2012) revised applied model of deliberate imagery use, suggesting that individual factors influence the effectiveness of imagery use. Specifically, athletes who have no disruption to daily functioning due to sleep find it easier to image sport-related content.
The authors examined the relationships among athletes’ perceptions of their coaches’ and their te... more The authors examined the relationships among athletes’ perceptions of their coaches’ and their team’s efficacy in a sample of 271 college soccer players (M = 19.84 years, SD = 1.42). Athletes’ perceptions of their coaches’ efficacy were assessed using a modified version of the Coaching Efficacy Scale (CES), and perceptions of team efficacy were assessed using the Collective Efficacy Questionnaire for Sport (CEQS). A canonical correlation analysis between the variants formed by the CES subscales and the CEQS subscales was statistically significant, Wilks’s criterion λ = .440, F(20, 883.17) = 12.40, p
Objective:To study athletes perceptions of adhesive ankle taping.Design:A qualitative study where... more Objective:To study athletes perceptions of adhesive ankle taping.Design:A qualitative study where athletes were interviewed regarding adhesive ankle taping.Setting:The University of North Dakota in Grand Forks, ND, USA.Participants:Eleven collegiate athletes, all currently taping their ankles, representative of three groups: recent injury, past injury, and no prior injury.Results:Taping resulted in feelings of increased confidence, increased strength, and decreased anxiety for injury or reinjury. Differences were found in responses given by the participants in the three groups.Conclusions:Taping has a psychological impact on athletes. Athletic trainers should make sure they educate athletes about the uses and functions of adhesive tape.
This experimental study examined differences in athletes’ perceptions of a coach who faked confid... more This experimental study examined differences in athletes’ perceptions of a coach who faked confidence. The participants (n = 29) were elite hockey players from the Dallas Stars organization and North Dakota men’s hockey program. They completed a questionnaire after watching a video of a coach draw up a neutral zone forecheck. Participants then read a short scenario that explained that the coach was faking his confidence regarding his knowledge about the strategy he presented. The athletes then completed the same set of questions again. Paired-sample t-tests compared the athletes’ ratings before and after they were told that the coach was faking his confidence. The questions were about coach’s confidence (in general), the coach’s confidence in the strategy he presented, and the athlete’s perception that the coach would be confident in his ability to explain a different strategy. All values significantly decreased (p = .00) after the participants were told that the coach was faking co...
Ice hockey is a complex intermittent team sport. During competition, roughly 18% of actual playin... more Ice hockey is a complex intermittent team sport. During competition, roughly 18% of actual playing time is spent performing high-intensity activity (e.g., fast forward skating, forward sprinting, fast backward skating), with the remainder spent performing low-intensity activity (e.g., slow forward skating, gliding, standing) [1]. The external work performed on-ice is predominately supported by anaerobic metabolism [2], however aerobic factors appear to be important for fatigue resistance . The development of ice hockey training programs is challenging as multiple components of fitness need to be addressed (e.g., speed, muscular strength, aerobic endurance, sport-specific skill) along with game tactics and team play. In-season, this is primarily accomplished during on-ice training sessions. Typical on-ice practice consists of a combination of systems drills, skill drills, battle drills and conditioning drills-making it difficult for coaches to quantify the external work performed-with the duration of each varying throughout the season. Furthermore, physical activity levels during on-ice practice differ between playing position and line status of the player. Coordinating the training load between onice and off-ice work adds to the complexity of the development of ABSTRACT: The utility of the heart rate derived variable TRaining IMPulse (TRIMP) for assessing internal training load in ice hockey players is not clear. Having a reliable measure of internal training load during onice training sessions would help coaches program exercise training. This study determined the reliability of TRIMP during on-ice training sessions in ice hockey players. Twelve Division I collegiate male ice hockey players (aged 18-23 years) had their heart rate (HR) data recorded during two on-ice practice sessions separated by two weeks. TRIMP and other descriptive HR variables were compared between sessions. TRIMP demonstrated moderate reliability during on-ice sessions. Systematic error, quantified as standardized change in means was negligible (-0.19); random error quantified as the percent typical error (%TE) was moderate (12.2%); and, testretest correlation was very strong (0.75). TRIMP is suitable for quantifying training load during intermittent work in hockey athletes. The results from our study can be used to determine the threshold for meaningful change in TRIMP, which may aid in informing decisions by coaches and strength training staff regarding on-ice training session difficulty and composition.
American journal of human biology : the official journal of the Human Biology Council, Jan 24, 2018
The primary aim of this study was to examine relationships between digit ratio (2D:4D) and game-r... more The primary aim of this study was to examine relationships between digit ratio (2D:4D) and game-related statistics in professional and semi-professional male basketball players. The secondary aim was to quantify differences in mean 2D:4Ds between starting and reserve players. Using a cross-sectional design, 93 male basketball players from the professional Australian National Basketball League and the semi-professional South Australian Premier League were measured in-season for height, mass, and 2D:4D, with game-related statistics collected end-season. Linear relationships between right and left 2D:4Ds and game-related statistics were quantified using nonparametric partial correlations, and differences in mean 2D:4Ds between starting and reserve players were quantified using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). All partial correlations and ANCOVAs were adjusted for playing experience, body size, and competitive standard. 2D:4D was a weak to moderate negative correlate of points scored an...
American journal of human biology : the official journal of the Human Biology Council, Jan 12, 2017
Digit ratio (2D:4D) is a negative correlate of sports performance, although this relationship may... more Digit ratio (2D:4D) is a negative correlate of sports performance, although this relationship may be weak in open-skill sports such as basketball. The primary aim was to quantify relationships between 2D:4D and game-related statistics in semi-professional female basketball players. The secondary aim was to quantify the differences in mean 2D:4Ds between players based on their position in the starting lineup. Using a cross-sectional design, 64 female basketball players who competed in the South Australian Premier League were measured in-season for height, mass, and 2D:4D, with game-related statistics collected end-season. Partial correlations (adjusted for age and body mass index) were used to quantify relationships between right and left 2D:4Ds and game-related statistics. Unpaired t-tests were used to quantify differences in mean 2D:4Ds between starting and reserve players. 2D:4D was a substantial negative correlate of blocks, rebounds, and field-goal percentage; meaning, females w...
This study examined the relationship between coaching efficacy and imagery use. Eighty-nine coach... more This study examined the relationship between coaching efficacy and imagery use. Eighty-nine coaches completed the Coaching Efficacy Scale and a modified version of the Sport Imagery Questionnaire. Results showed significant positive correlations among the coaching efficacy subscales and imagery functions. Regression analyses showed that the significant predictor for game strategy efficacy was CG imagery. Predictors for motivation efficacy included career record and MG-M imagery. MG-M imagery and total years of coaching were the significant predictors for total efficacy scores and character building efficacy. The only significant predictor for teaching technique efficacy was CS. The results replicate and extend the relationships found between efficacy and imagery for athletes and show that imagery also may be an effective strategy to build and maintain coaching efficacy.
This experiment examined the interaction between two imagery functions (Cognitive Specific, CS; a... more This experiment examined the interaction between two imagery functions (Cognitive Specific, CS; and Motivation - General Mastery, MG-M) and two imagery directions (facilitative, debilitative) on self-efficacy and performance in golf putting. Eighty-three participants were randomly assigned to one of 7 conditions: (a) CS + facilitative imagery, (b) CS + debilitative imagery, (c) MG-M + facilitative imagery, (d) MG-M + debilitative imagery, (e) CS imagery only, (f) MG-M imagery only, (g) no imagery (stretching) control group. A 3 (imagery direction) X 3 (imagery function) X 2 (gender) ANCOVA with pretest scores used as the covariate was used. Results showed a main effect for performance; means were higher for the facilitative group compared to the debilitative group. For self-efficacy, there was a significant imagery direction by imagery function by gender interaction. These findings suggest imagery direction and imagery function can affect self-efficacy and performance and that males...
International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 2008
This book is described as a “go to” reference on efficacy research and a “must have” for scholar-... more This book is described as a “go to” reference on efficacy research and a “must have” for scholar-practitioners who are interested in “theoretically based and research-tested guidelines and recommendations for interventions”(p. vii). It is divided into three parts, the first of which covers the conceptual nature of self-efficacy and its measurement. The second part of the book deals with efficacy beliefs of athletes, team and coaches; with the third part of the book being concerned with enhancing efficacy beliefs of athletes, teams and ...
To assess whether the Group Environment Questionnaire is applicable to athletes in co-acting spor... more To assess whether the Group Environment Questionnaire is applicable to athletes in co-acting sports such as track and field, the factor structure of the Group Environment Questionnaire among a heterogeneous sample of 199 co-acting team sport athletes was investigated. A confirmatory factor analysis did not support the hypothesized four-factor model. A subsequent exploratory factor analysis yielded two independent factors that had no interpretable pattern of the four Group Environment Questionnaire factors within them. While this finding requires replication and confirmation, the four-factor model of the Group Environment Questionnaire does not appear to be as valid for co-acting sports as for interacting sports.
Little is known about the nature of the academically structured student coach internship. This st... more Little is known about the nature of the academically structured student coach internship. This study provided a preliminary exploration of the internship experience in the university setting from the student coach perspective. Student coach internship experiences were found to vary widely both in terms of opportunities to coach and in the nature of the academic supervision received. While the majority of students felt their internships were a positive experience that prepared them for a career in coaching, a small percentage of participants reported that they had few opportunities to perform coaching actions, highlighting the lack of consistency in coaching education internship experiences. Recommendations for coaching educators and future researchers are explored.
Http Dx Doi Org 10 1080 07303084 2001 10605829, Feb 24, 2013
Abstract This paper aims to help teachers and coaches understand the use of mental imagery with c... more Abstract This paper aims to help teachers and coaches understand the use of mental imagery with children. A brief overview of the nature of imagery is presented, followed by guidelines for teaching and developing imagery skills. Nine potential uses of mental imagery are discussed, viz. imagery for learning, performing, focusing, self-confidence, motivation, arousal, changing negatives to positives, relaxation, and healing.
Http Dx Doi Org 10 1080 07303084 2003 10608362, Feb 24, 2013
This paper describes selfand team confidence and presents theoretical support for the notion of t... more This paper describes selfand team confidence and presents theoretical support for the notion of team confidence. It also offers practical suggestions for building, maintaining, and regaining team confidence.
This book provides a reference for sport psychology lecturers, students, coaches and other profes... more This book provides a reference for sport psychology lecturers, students, coaches and other professionals with an interest in the field. Self-belief, known as 'self-efficacy' by sports psychologists is widely believed to be an essential component of sporting success. This book examines the nature of efficacy as it applies to sporting behaviour in coaches, athletes and teams. It is the first reference book entirely devoted to the concept of self-efficacy in sport. It provides readers with a basic background of research on the topic, as well as current and future trends; offers research-tested guidelines and recommendations for using efficacy techniques with individual athletes and teams; and, includes a comprehensive annotated bibliography of references on the topic.
This study explored the relation between athletes' sleep quality and imagery ability. A total of ... more This study explored the relation between athletes' sleep quality and imagery ability. A total of 201 athletes (39.3% female, 60.7% male; Mage = 23.28 years, SD = 6.00) completed the Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire (SIAQ) and the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). Simple regression analyses revealed that global sleep quality predicted affect imagery ability. Multiple regression analyses revealed that daytime dysfunction predicted global imagery ability as well as skill, strategy, affect, and mastery imagery ability dimensions. In addition, use of sleeping medication predicted global imagery ability, as well as goal and affect imagery ability dimensions. Results provide some support for Cumming and Williams' (2012) revised applied model of deliberate imagery use, suggesting that individual factors influence the effectiveness of imagery use. Specifically, athletes who have no disruption to daily functioning due to sleep find it easier to image sport-related content.
The authors examined the relationships among athletes’ perceptions of their coaches’ and their te... more The authors examined the relationships among athletes’ perceptions of their coaches’ and their team’s efficacy in a sample of 271 college soccer players (M = 19.84 years, SD = 1.42). Athletes’ perceptions of their coaches’ efficacy were assessed using a modified version of the Coaching Efficacy Scale (CES), and perceptions of team efficacy were assessed using the Collective Efficacy Questionnaire for Sport (CEQS). A canonical correlation analysis between the variants formed by the CES subscales and the CEQS subscales was statistically significant, Wilks’s criterion λ = .440, F(20, 883.17) = 12.40, p
Objective:To study athletes perceptions of adhesive ankle taping.Design:A qualitative study where... more Objective:To study athletes perceptions of adhesive ankle taping.Design:A qualitative study where athletes were interviewed regarding adhesive ankle taping.Setting:The University of North Dakota in Grand Forks, ND, USA.Participants:Eleven collegiate athletes, all currently taping their ankles, representative of three groups: recent injury, past injury, and no prior injury.Results:Taping resulted in feelings of increased confidence, increased strength, and decreased anxiety for injury or reinjury. Differences were found in responses given by the participants in the three groups.Conclusions:Taping has a psychological impact on athletes. Athletic trainers should make sure they educate athletes about the uses and functions of adhesive tape.
This experimental study examined differences in athletes’ perceptions of a coach who faked confid... more This experimental study examined differences in athletes’ perceptions of a coach who faked confidence. The participants (n = 29) were elite hockey players from the Dallas Stars organization and North Dakota men’s hockey program. They completed a questionnaire after watching a video of a coach draw up a neutral zone forecheck. Participants then read a short scenario that explained that the coach was faking his confidence regarding his knowledge about the strategy he presented. The athletes then completed the same set of questions again. Paired-sample t-tests compared the athletes’ ratings before and after they were told that the coach was faking his confidence. The questions were about coach’s confidence (in general), the coach’s confidence in the strategy he presented, and the athlete’s perception that the coach would be confident in his ability to explain a different strategy. All values significantly decreased (p = .00) after the participants were told that the coach was faking co...
Ice hockey is a complex intermittent team sport. During competition, roughly 18% of actual playin... more Ice hockey is a complex intermittent team sport. During competition, roughly 18% of actual playing time is spent performing high-intensity activity (e.g., fast forward skating, forward sprinting, fast backward skating), with the remainder spent performing low-intensity activity (e.g., slow forward skating, gliding, standing) [1]. The external work performed on-ice is predominately supported by anaerobic metabolism [2], however aerobic factors appear to be important for fatigue resistance . The development of ice hockey training programs is challenging as multiple components of fitness need to be addressed (e.g., speed, muscular strength, aerobic endurance, sport-specific skill) along with game tactics and team play. In-season, this is primarily accomplished during on-ice training sessions. Typical on-ice practice consists of a combination of systems drills, skill drills, battle drills and conditioning drills-making it difficult for coaches to quantify the external work performed-with the duration of each varying throughout the season. Furthermore, physical activity levels during on-ice practice differ between playing position and line status of the player. Coordinating the training load between onice and off-ice work adds to the complexity of the development of ABSTRACT: The utility of the heart rate derived variable TRaining IMPulse (TRIMP) for assessing internal training load in ice hockey players is not clear. Having a reliable measure of internal training load during onice training sessions would help coaches program exercise training. This study determined the reliability of TRIMP during on-ice training sessions in ice hockey players. Twelve Division I collegiate male ice hockey players (aged 18-23 years) had their heart rate (HR) data recorded during two on-ice practice sessions separated by two weeks. TRIMP and other descriptive HR variables were compared between sessions. TRIMP demonstrated moderate reliability during on-ice sessions. Systematic error, quantified as standardized change in means was negligible (-0.19); random error quantified as the percent typical error (%TE) was moderate (12.2%); and, testretest correlation was very strong (0.75). TRIMP is suitable for quantifying training load during intermittent work in hockey athletes. The results from our study can be used to determine the threshold for meaningful change in TRIMP, which may aid in informing decisions by coaches and strength training staff regarding on-ice training session difficulty and composition.
American journal of human biology : the official journal of the Human Biology Council, Jan 24, 2018
The primary aim of this study was to examine relationships between digit ratio (2D:4D) and game-r... more The primary aim of this study was to examine relationships between digit ratio (2D:4D) and game-related statistics in professional and semi-professional male basketball players. The secondary aim was to quantify differences in mean 2D:4Ds between starting and reserve players. Using a cross-sectional design, 93 male basketball players from the professional Australian National Basketball League and the semi-professional South Australian Premier League were measured in-season for height, mass, and 2D:4D, with game-related statistics collected end-season. Linear relationships between right and left 2D:4Ds and game-related statistics were quantified using nonparametric partial correlations, and differences in mean 2D:4Ds between starting and reserve players were quantified using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). All partial correlations and ANCOVAs were adjusted for playing experience, body size, and competitive standard. 2D:4D was a weak to moderate negative correlate of points scored an...
American journal of human biology : the official journal of the Human Biology Council, Jan 12, 2017
Digit ratio (2D:4D) is a negative correlate of sports performance, although this relationship may... more Digit ratio (2D:4D) is a negative correlate of sports performance, although this relationship may be weak in open-skill sports such as basketball. The primary aim was to quantify relationships between 2D:4D and game-related statistics in semi-professional female basketball players. The secondary aim was to quantify the differences in mean 2D:4Ds between players based on their position in the starting lineup. Using a cross-sectional design, 64 female basketball players who competed in the South Australian Premier League were measured in-season for height, mass, and 2D:4D, with game-related statistics collected end-season. Partial correlations (adjusted for age and body mass index) were used to quantify relationships between right and left 2D:4Ds and game-related statistics. Unpaired t-tests were used to quantify differences in mean 2D:4Ds between starting and reserve players. 2D:4D was a substantial negative correlate of blocks, rebounds, and field-goal percentage; meaning, females w...
This study examined the relationship between coaching efficacy and imagery use. Eighty-nine coach... more This study examined the relationship between coaching efficacy and imagery use. Eighty-nine coaches completed the Coaching Efficacy Scale and a modified version of the Sport Imagery Questionnaire. Results showed significant positive correlations among the coaching efficacy subscales and imagery functions. Regression analyses showed that the significant predictor for game strategy efficacy was CG imagery. Predictors for motivation efficacy included career record and MG-M imagery. MG-M imagery and total years of coaching were the significant predictors for total efficacy scores and character building efficacy. The only significant predictor for teaching technique efficacy was CS. The results replicate and extend the relationships found between efficacy and imagery for athletes and show that imagery also may be an effective strategy to build and maintain coaching efficacy.
This experiment examined the interaction between two imagery functions (Cognitive Specific, CS; a... more This experiment examined the interaction between two imagery functions (Cognitive Specific, CS; and Motivation - General Mastery, MG-M) and two imagery directions (facilitative, debilitative) on self-efficacy and performance in golf putting. Eighty-three participants were randomly assigned to one of 7 conditions: (a) CS + facilitative imagery, (b) CS + debilitative imagery, (c) MG-M + facilitative imagery, (d) MG-M + debilitative imagery, (e) CS imagery only, (f) MG-M imagery only, (g) no imagery (stretching) control group. A 3 (imagery direction) X 3 (imagery function) X 2 (gender) ANCOVA with pretest scores used as the covariate was used. Results showed a main effect for performance; means were higher for the facilitative group compared to the debilitative group. For self-efficacy, there was a significant imagery direction by imagery function by gender interaction. These findings suggest imagery direction and imagery function can affect self-efficacy and performance and that males...
International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 2008
This book is described as a “go to” reference on efficacy research and a “must have” for scholar-... more This book is described as a “go to” reference on efficacy research and a “must have” for scholar-practitioners who are interested in “theoretically based and research-tested guidelines and recommendations for interventions”(p. vii). It is divided into three parts, the first of which covers the conceptual nature of self-efficacy and its measurement. The second part of the book deals with efficacy beliefs of athletes, team and coaches; with the third part of the book being concerned with enhancing efficacy beliefs of athletes, teams and ...
To assess whether the Group Environment Questionnaire is applicable to athletes in co-acting spor... more To assess whether the Group Environment Questionnaire is applicable to athletes in co-acting sports such as track and field, the factor structure of the Group Environment Questionnaire among a heterogeneous sample of 199 co-acting team sport athletes was investigated. A confirmatory factor analysis did not support the hypothesized four-factor model. A subsequent exploratory factor analysis yielded two independent factors that had no interpretable pattern of the four Group Environment Questionnaire factors within them. While this finding requires replication and confirmation, the four-factor model of the Group Environment Questionnaire does not appear to be as valid for co-acting sports as for interacting sports.
Little is known about the nature of the academically structured student coach internship. This st... more Little is known about the nature of the academically structured student coach internship. This study provided a preliminary exploration of the internship experience in the university setting from the student coach perspective. Student coach internship experiences were found to vary widely both in terms of opportunities to coach and in the nature of the academic supervision received. While the majority of students felt their internships were a positive experience that prepared them for a career in coaching, a small percentage of participants reported that they had few opportunities to perform coaching actions, highlighting the lack of consistency in coaching education internship experiences. Recommendations for coaching educators and future researchers are explored.
Http Dx Doi Org 10 1080 07303084 2001 10605829, Feb 24, 2013
Abstract This paper aims to help teachers and coaches understand the use of mental imagery with c... more Abstract This paper aims to help teachers and coaches understand the use of mental imagery with children. A brief overview of the nature of imagery is presented, followed by guidelines for teaching and developing imagery skills. Nine potential uses of mental imagery are discussed, viz. imagery for learning, performing, focusing, self-confidence, motivation, arousal, changing negatives to positives, relaxation, and healing.
Http Dx Doi Org 10 1080 07303084 2003 10608362, Feb 24, 2013
This paper describes selfand team confidence and presents theoretical support for the notion of t... more This paper describes selfand team confidence and presents theoretical support for the notion of team confidence. It also offers practical suggestions for building, maintaining, and regaining team confidence.
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Papers by Sandra Short