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Rita Ramalho

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Giulio Itzcovich

Brescia University

Shinta Rosalia Dewi

University of Brawijaya

Universidad de Alcala

Jan-Anders Manson

Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne

Roberto Cippitani

Indepac

PONTIFICIA UNIVERSIDAD CATÓLICA DE CHILE

Mohamed Mkaouar

University of Sfax

Mohammad Fakhrul Islam

Stamford University, Bangladesh

Universidade do Minho

Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne

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Papers by Rita Ramalho

Survival of firms in developing economies during economic crisis

Vox eBook Chapters, 2020

Business Regulations and Growth

Policy Research Working Papers, 2015

The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encoura... more The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.

The Effect of Corporate Taxes on Investment and Entrepreneurship

American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, 2010

We present new data on effective corporate income tax rates in 85 countries in 2004. The data com... more We present new data on effective corporate income tax rates in 85 countries in 2004. The data come from a survey, conducted jointly with PricewaterhouseCoopers, of all taxes imposed on “the same” standardized mid-size domestic firm. In a cross-section of countries, our estimates of the effective corporate tax rate have a large adverse impact on aggregate investment, FDI, and entrepreneurial activity. Corporate tax rates are correlated with investment in manufacturing but not services, as well as with the size of the informal economy. The results are robust to the inclusion of many controls. (JEL E22, F23, G31, H25, H32, L26)

Business regulations and poverty

Economics Letters

The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encoura... more The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.

Celebrating reform : doing business

Reforms are on the rise Reforms to make it easier for businesses to operate are on the rise. In 2... more Reforms are on the rise Reforms to make it easier for businesses to operate are on the rise. In 2005-06, 213 reforms took place in 112 countries. This compares to 185 reforms in 99 countries in 2004-05. And 89 reforms in 58 countries in 2003-04. Four reasons explain the upswing. First, the collapse of socialism and the entry of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union in the world economy. Over the last decade, this region has led in reforms (figure 1). This is not surprising: the environment for doing business in the private sector was difficult so a lot had to be changed.

Employment laws in developing countries

Journal of Comparative Economics, 2009

... Labor market rigidity is measured using the rigidity of employment index published by DoingBu... more

Thirteen years of data and analysis on tax systems in 190 economies: A look at recent developments and historical trends Stef van Weeghel Leader, Global Tax Policy and Administration Network World Bank Group

Post-filing index +0.1ppt Largest increases arise from: • Corporate income taxes • Turnover taxes... more Post-filing index +0.1ppt Largest increases arise from: • Corporate income taxes • Turnover taxes On average it takes our case study company 240 hours to comply with its taxes, it makes 24 payments and has an average Total Tax & Contribution Rate (TTCR) of 40.5%. The global average TTCR has increased by 0.1 percentage point (2016: 40.5%, 2015: 40.4%). In 2016, significantly more economies showed an increase in TTCR than a reduction-52 compared to 36.

What have we learned from the ENterprise Surveys Regarding Access to Finance by SMEs? Enterprise Analyisis Unit of the Worldbank, manuscript

Using a unique firm level data – Enterprise Surveys- we develop a new measure of credit constrain... more Using a unique firm level data – Enterprise Surveys- we develop a new measure of credit constrained status for firms using hard data instead of perceptions data. We classify firms into 4 categories: Not Credit Constrained, Maybe Credit Constrained, Partially Credit Constrained, and Fully Credit Constrained to understand the characteristics of the firms that fall into each group. In particular we look at firm size as a potential determinant of credit constrained status. First, we find that SMEs are more likely to be credit constrained (either partially or fully) than large firms. Furthermore, they finance their working capital and investments mainly through trade credit and informal sources of finance. These two results hold to a large extent in all the regions of the developing world. Second, although size is a significant predictor of the probability of being credit constrained, firm age is not. Third, high performing firms measured by labor productivity are less likely to be credi...

The authors are from the World Bank, World Bank, and Harvard University, respectively. We are extremely

We investigate cross-country determinants of private credit, using new data on legal creditor rig... more We investigate cross-country determinants of private credit, using new data on legal creditor rights and private and public credit registries in 129 countries. We find that both creditor protection through the legal system and information sharing institutions are associated with higher ratios of private credit to GDP, but that the former is relatively more important in the richer countries. An analysis of legal reforms also shows that credit rises after improvements in creditor rights and in information sharing. We also find that creditor rights are remarkably stable over time, contrary to the hypothesis that legal rules are converging. Finally, we find that legal origins are an important determinant of both creditor rights and information sharing institutions. The analysis suggests that public credit registries, which are primarily a feature of French civil law countries, benefit private credit markets in developing countries.

Connecting Businesses to the Electrical Grid in 140 Economies Second Draft, December 2009

We present new data on the regulation of the process for electricity connections in 140 economies... more We present new data on the regulation of the process for electricity connections in 140 economies. The data cover the number of procedures, official time and official cost that a smalland medium size business must go through to obtain a new electricity connection. We find significant variation in the time and cost for small to medium size businesses to obtain an electricity connection across countries. In low income countries it takes on average more than double the time than in high income countries to connect a new customer to electricity. These large differences can in part be explained by the overall level of bureaucracy in the country, especially in those countries where utilities are majority state-owned. We also find the new data to be correlated with existing measures of efficiency of the electricity sector, suggesting that the hurdles related to obtaining an electricity connection can mirror other problems in the sector. Finally, we find that simpler electricity connection ...

Regulation and Growth

Using objective measures of business regulations in 135 countries, we establish that countries wi... more

Paying Taxes The global picture01 Contacts For further information, or to discuss any of the findings in this report please contact: World Bank Group

The World Bank’s Doing Business Project and PricewaterhouseCoopers are delighted to share with yo... more The World Bank’s Doing Business Project and PricewaterhouseCoopers are delighted to share with you the results of a survey which has been conducted as part of the World Bank Doing Business report (www.doingbusiness.org/taxes) to look at and compare tax regimes around the world. The results focus on the need for governments to ensure the effectiveness of the tax systems they implement, and for companies to appreciate the benefits of making tax reporting more transparent. The effectiveness of a tax system relies on well-informed policy decision-making and the ability of businesses to comply with legislation. This publication considers improvements from the perspective of both government and business. The conclusions are based on the findings of a survey on paying taxes which looked at the position of a standard modest-sized company in each of 175 countries. The work was carried out by the World Bank during the months of April to July 2006, with the support of PricewaterhouseCoopers in...

We would like to thank the NBER for support via the Africa Project. We would like to thank Bill

The views expressed in the HKS Faculty Research Working Paper Series are those of the author(s) a... more The views expressed in the HKS Faculty Research Working Paper Series are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect those of the John F. Kennedy School of Government or of Harvard University. Faculty Research Working Papers have not undergone formal review and approval. Such papers are included in this series to elicit feedback and to encourage debate on important public policy challenges. Copyright belongs to the author(s). Papers may be downloaded for personal use only. www.hks.harvard.edu NBER WORKING PAPER SERIES

The persistence of corruption : evidence from the 1992 presidential impeachment in Brazil

Corruption imposes substantial economic costs, yet there is little evidence on the success of ant... more Corruption imposes substantial economic costs, yet there is little evidence on the success of anti-corruption campaigns. The author study the 1992 impeachment of president Collor in Brazil to evaluate its impact on politically connected companies both in the short and long-term. Using an event study methodology, the author establishes the short-run effect: family connected firms on average lose 2 to 9 percentage points of their value on dates when information damaging to the impeached president is released. However, this decline is reversed entirely within one year. The author concludes that the impeachment had limited success in reducing corruption in Brazil.

Improving access to finance for SMES : opportunities through credit reporting, secured lending, and insolvency practices

Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) account for over 90 percent of firms worldwide. A joint IFC a... more Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) account for over 90 percent of firms worldwide. A joint IFC and McKinsey study in 2010 estimated the total number of formal and informal micro, small and medium enterprises globally at 420-510 million, with most firms, 365-445 million, located in developing economies. SMEs play a critical role in the global economy. They are the most significant contributors to employment and generate most of jobs in developing economies. SMEs are also a substantial contributor to overall value added in these economies. Recognizing the importance of SMEs, the World Bank Group’s SME finance portfolio includes almost $4.8 billion in active lending, with 61 lending projects in 47 economies worldwide as of January 2018. Nevertheless, SMEs face greater financing obstacles than larger firms, they enjoy less access to external finance and face higher transactions costs and higher risk premiums. Almost 70 percent of SMEs do not use external financing from financial instit...

Doing business in small Island developing states 2008 : comparing regulation across 32 economies and with 178 economies

Doing business in Small Island developing states is a report drawing on the data of the global do... more Doing business in Small Island developing states is a report drawing on the data of the global doing business project and database, as well as the findings of doing business 2008, an annual report published by the World Bank and the International Finance Corporation. Doing business analyzes government regulations that enhance business activity and those that constrain it in 178 countries, including 32 SIDS economies: Antigua and Barbuda, Belize, Cape Verde, Comoros, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Grenada, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Kiribati, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Micronesia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Singapore, St.Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Suriname, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago and Vanuatu. Regulations affecting 10 areas of everyday business are measured: starting a business, dealing with licenses, employing workers, registering property, getting c...

Celebrating reform : doing business

Reforming business regulation takes leadership-more than many other reforms. Committed leaders pr... more Reforming business regulation takes leadership-more than many other reforms. Committed leaders provide vision, energy and direction to improving business climates, often in the face of daunting challenges. Some of the case studies included in this report are: celebrating reform by Simeon Djankov and Caralee Mcliesh; starting a business (quickly) in El Salvador by James Newton, Sylvia Solf, and Adriana Vicentini; how to double business entry in two years by Tom Jersild and Zoran Skopljak; employing Macedonia's youth by Adam Larson, Kiril Minoski, and Janet Morris; protecting investors from self-dealing by Melissa Johns and Jean Michel Lobet; adding a million taxpayers by Rita Ramalho; speeding up trade by Allen Dennis; repairing a car with the engine running by Sabine Hertveldt; and faster, more orderly exit by Justin Yap.

Survival of Firms during Economic Crisis

SSRN Electronic Journal

The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encoura... more The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.

Women's Entrepreneurship: How to Measure the Gap between New Female and Male Entrepreneurs?

Policy Research Working Papers

The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encoura... more The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.

Unequal before the Law: Measuring Legal Gender Disparities across the World

Policy Research Working Papers, 2016

The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encoura... more The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.

Survival of firms in developing economies during economic crisis

Vox eBook Chapters, 2020

Business Regulations and Growth

Policy Research Working Papers, 2015

The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encoura... more The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.

The Effect of Corporate Taxes on Investment and Entrepreneurship

American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, 2010

We present new data on effective corporate income tax rates in 85 countries in 2004. The data com... more We present new data on effective corporate income tax rates in 85 countries in 2004. The data come from a survey, conducted jointly with PricewaterhouseCoopers, of all taxes imposed on “the same” standardized mid-size domestic firm. In a cross-section of countries, our estimates of the effective corporate tax rate have a large adverse impact on aggregate investment, FDI, and entrepreneurial activity. Corporate tax rates are correlated with investment in manufacturing but not services, as well as with the size of the informal economy. The results are robust to the inclusion of many controls. (JEL E22, F23, G31, H25, H32, L26)

Business regulations and poverty

Economics Letters

The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encoura... more The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.

Celebrating reform : doing business

Reforms are on the rise Reforms to make it easier for businesses to operate are on the rise. In 2... more Reforms are on the rise Reforms to make it easier for businesses to operate are on the rise. In 2005-06, 213 reforms took place in 112 countries. This compares to 185 reforms in 99 countries in 2004-05. And 89 reforms in 58 countries in 2003-04. Four reasons explain the upswing. First, the collapse of socialism and the entry of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union in the world economy. Over the last decade, this region has led in reforms (figure 1). This is not surprising: the environment for doing business in the private sector was difficult so a lot had to be changed.

Employment laws in developing countries

Journal of Comparative Economics, 2009

... Labor market rigidity is measured using the rigidity of employment index published by DoingBu... more

Thirteen years of data and analysis on tax systems in 190 economies: A look at recent developments and historical trends Stef van Weeghel Leader, Global Tax Policy and Administration Network World Bank Group

Post-filing index +0.1ppt Largest increases arise from: • Corporate income taxes • Turnover taxes... more Post-filing index +0.1ppt Largest increases arise from: • Corporate income taxes • Turnover taxes On average it takes our case study company 240 hours to comply with its taxes, it makes 24 payments and has an average Total Tax & Contribution Rate (TTCR) of 40.5%. The global average TTCR has increased by 0.1 percentage point (2016: 40.5%, 2015: 40.4%). In 2016, significantly more economies showed an increase in TTCR than a reduction-52 compared to 36.

What have we learned from the ENterprise Surveys Regarding Access to Finance by SMEs? Enterprise Analyisis Unit of the Worldbank, manuscript

Using a unique firm level data – Enterprise Surveys- we develop a new measure of credit constrain... more Using a unique firm level data – Enterprise Surveys- we develop a new measure of credit constrained status for firms using hard data instead of perceptions data. We classify firms into 4 categories: Not Credit Constrained, Maybe Credit Constrained, Partially Credit Constrained, and Fully Credit Constrained to understand the characteristics of the firms that fall into each group. In particular we look at firm size as a potential determinant of credit constrained status. First, we find that SMEs are more likely to be credit constrained (either partially or fully) than large firms. Furthermore, they finance their working capital and investments mainly through trade credit and informal sources of finance. These two results hold to a large extent in all the regions of the developing world. Second, although size is a significant predictor of the probability of being credit constrained, firm age is not. Third, high performing firms measured by labor productivity are less likely to be credi...

The authors are from the World Bank, World Bank, and Harvard University, respectively. We are extremely

We investigate cross-country determinants of private credit, using new data on legal creditor rig... more We investigate cross-country determinants of private credit, using new data on legal creditor rights and private and public credit registries in 129 countries. We find that both creditor protection through the legal system and information sharing institutions are associated with higher ratios of private credit to GDP, but that the former is relatively more important in the richer countries. An analysis of legal reforms also shows that credit rises after improvements in creditor rights and in information sharing. We also find that creditor rights are remarkably stable over time, contrary to the hypothesis that legal rules are converging. Finally, we find that legal origins are an important determinant of both creditor rights and information sharing institutions. The analysis suggests that public credit registries, which are primarily a feature of French civil law countries, benefit private credit markets in developing countries.

Connecting Businesses to the Electrical Grid in 140 Economies Second Draft, December 2009

We present new data on the regulation of the process for electricity connections in 140 economies... more We present new data on the regulation of the process for electricity connections in 140 economies. The data cover the number of procedures, official time and official cost that a smalland medium size business must go through to obtain a new electricity connection. We find significant variation in the time and cost for small to medium size businesses to obtain an electricity connection across countries. In low income countries it takes on average more than double the time than in high income countries to connect a new customer to electricity. These large differences can in part be explained by the overall level of bureaucracy in the country, especially in those countries where utilities are majority state-owned. We also find the new data to be correlated with existing measures of efficiency of the electricity sector, suggesting that the hurdles related to obtaining an electricity connection can mirror other problems in the sector. Finally, we find that simpler electricity connection ...

Regulation and Growth

Using objective measures of business regulations in 135 countries, we establish that countries wi... more

Paying Taxes The global picture01 Contacts For further information, or to discuss any of the findings in this report please contact: World Bank Group

The World Bank’s Doing Business Project and PricewaterhouseCoopers are delighted to share with yo... more The World Bank’s Doing Business Project and PricewaterhouseCoopers are delighted to share with you the results of a survey which has been conducted as part of the World Bank Doing Business report (www.doingbusiness.org/taxes) to look at and compare tax regimes around the world. The results focus on the need for governments to ensure the effectiveness of the tax systems they implement, and for companies to appreciate the benefits of making tax reporting more transparent. The effectiveness of a tax system relies on well-informed policy decision-making and the ability of businesses to comply with legislation. This publication considers improvements from the perspective of both government and business. The conclusions are based on the findings of a survey on paying taxes which looked at the position of a standard modest-sized company in each of 175 countries. The work was carried out by the World Bank during the months of April to July 2006, with the support of PricewaterhouseCoopers in...

We would like to thank the NBER for support via the Africa Project. We would like to thank Bill

The views expressed in the HKS Faculty Research Working Paper Series are those of the author(s) a... more The views expressed in the HKS Faculty Research Working Paper Series are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect those of the John F. Kennedy School of Government or of Harvard University. Faculty Research Working Papers have not undergone formal review and approval. Such papers are included in this series to elicit feedback and to encourage debate on important public policy challenges. Copyright belongs to the author(s). Papers may be downloaded for personal use only. www.hks.harvard.edu NBER WORKING PAPER SERIES

The persistence of corruption : evidence from the 1992 presidential impeachment in Brazil

Corruption imposes substantial economic costs, yet there is little evidence on the success of ant... more Corruption imposes substantial economic costs, yet there is little evidence on the success of anti-corruption campaigns. The author study the 1992 impeachment of president Collor in Brazil to evaluate its impact on politically connected companies both in the short and long-term. Using an event study methodology, the author establishes the short-run effect: family connected firms on average lose 2 to 9 percentage points of their value on dates when information damaging to the impeached president is released. However, this decline is reversed entirely within one year. The author concludes that the impeachment had limited success in reducing corruption in Brazil.

Improving access to finance for SMES : opportunities through credit reporting, secured lending, and insolvency practices

Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) account for over 90 percent of firms worldwide. A joint IFC a... more Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) account for over 90 percent of firms worldwide. A joint IFC and McKinsey study in 2010 estimated the total number of formal and informal micro, small and medium enterprises globally at 420-510 million, with most firms, 365-445 million, located in developing economies. SMEs play a critical role in the global economy. They are the most significant contributors to employment and generate most of jobs in developing economies. SMEs are also a substantial contributor to overall value added in these economies. Recognizing the importance of SMEs, the World Bank Group’s SME finance portfolio includes almost $4.8 billion in active lending, with 61 lending projects in 47 economies worldwide as of January 2018. Nevertheless, SMEs face greater financing obstacles than larger firms, they enjoy less access to external finance and face higher transactions costs and higher risk premiums. Almost 70 percent of SMEs do not use external financing from financial instit...

Doing business in small Island developing states 2008 : comparing regulation across 32 economies and with 178 economies

Doing business in Small Island developing states is a report drawing on the data of the global do... more Doing business in Small Island developing states is a report drawing on the data of the global doing business project and database, as well as the findings of doing business 2008, an annual report published by the World Bank and the International Finance Corporation. Doing business analyzes government regulations that enhance business activity and those that constrain it in 178 countries, including 32 SIDS economies: Antigua and Barbuda, Belize, Cape Verde, Comoros, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Grenada, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Kiribati, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Micronesia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Singapore, St.Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Suriname, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago and Vanuatu. Regulations affecting 10 areas of everyday business are measured: starting a business, dealing with licenses, employing workers, registering property, getting c...

Celebrating reform : doing business

Reforming business regulation takes leadership-more than many other reforms. Committed leaders pr... more Reforming business regulation takes leadership-more than many other reforms. Committed leaders provide vision, energy and direction to improving business climates, often in the face of daunting challenges. Some of the case studies included in this report are: celebrating reform by Simeon Djankov and Caralee Mcliesh; starting a business (quickly) in El Salvador by James Newton, Sylvia Solf, and Adriana Vicentini; how to double business entry in two years by Tom Jersild and Zoran Skopljak; employing Macedonia's youth by Adam Larson, Kiril Minoski, and Janet Morris; protecting investors from self-dealing by Melissa Johns and Jean Michel Lobet; adding a million taxpayers by Rita Ramalho; speeding up trade by Allen Dennis; repairing a car with the engine running by Sabine Hertveldt; and faster, more orderly exit by Justin Yap.

Survival of Firms during Economic Crisis

SSRN Electronic Journal

The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encoura... more The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.

Women's Entrepreneurship: How to Measure the Gap between New Female and Male Entrepreneurs?

Policy Research Working Papers

The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encoura... more The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.

Unequal before the Law: Measuring Legal Gender Disparities across the World

Policy Research Working Papers, 2016

The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encoura... more The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.