This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative... more This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY
Equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID), also known as equine Cushing's syndrome, typ... more Equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID), also known as equine Cushing's syndrome, typically occurs in horses older than 15 years of age and is characterized by hair coat abnormalities, muscle atrophy, increased susceptibility to chronic infections and laminitis. Moreover, a reduction in insulin sensitivity has been described in horses with PPID compared to younger adult horses (Klinkhamer et al., 2011); however, the difference in insulin sensitivity between horses with PPID and agedmatched controls has not been well characterized. The objective of this study was to determine if aged horses with PPID had reduced insulin sensitivity when compared to healthy aged horses. In this study, twelve horses older than 20 years of age were classified as either PPID (n¼6; 25.0AE2.5 yrs; meanAESD) or Control (n¼6; 25.7AE2.0 yrs). PPID classification was based on a resting ACTH greater than 50 pg/mL (PPID: 98.4AE73.7 pg/mL; Control: 23.3AE8.2 pg/mL) and serum cortisol greater than 1 mg/dL19-20 hours post dexamethasone administration (PPID: 2.27AE0.92 mg/dL; Control: 0.46AE0.32 mg/dL). Insulin
There is a paucity of data relating to the vitamin D status of racehorses. We hypothesised that t... more There is a paucity of data relating to the vitamin D status of racehorses. We hypothesised that the management of racehorses in Hong Kong (HK) predisposes to low vitamin D status unless they receive dietary supplementation. Serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D2 (25OHD2), 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (25OHD3) and total 25-hydroxyvitamin D (total 25OHD) for 79 non-grazing HK racehorses were compared with those for 22 racehorses training in the United Kingdom (UK) that grazed for ≥1 h/d, and for which published data exists. A nested group of 41 HK horses was sampled twice to determine the effect of the duration in HK on vitamin D status. The HK horses had significantly lower serum concentrations of total 25OHD and 25OHD2 than the UK horses; 25OHD2 was undetectable in 15/79 HK sera and serum concentrations of 25OHD2 declined with the duration in HK. The main determinants of vitamin D status were assessed using linear regression; the retained variables were the 25OHD3 concentration and th...
Horses have a slow rate of muscle glycogen repletion relative to other species for unknown reason... more Horses have a slow rate of muscle glycogen repletion relative to other species for unknown reasons. Our aim was to determine the expression of glucose transporters (GLUT) and genes impacting GLUT4 expression and translocation in the gluteal muscle. Five fit Thoroughbred horses performed glycogen-depleting exercises on high-starch (HS, 2869 g starch/day) and low-starch, high-fat diets (LS-HF, 358 g starch/d) with gluteal muscle biopsies obtained before and after depletion and during repletion. Muscle glycogen declined by ≈30% on both diets with little increase during repletion on LS-HF. Transcriptomic analysis identified differential expression (DE) of only 2/12 genes impacting GLUT4 translocation (two subunits of AMP protein kinase) and only at depletion on LS-HF. Only 1/13 genes encoding proteins that promote GLUT4 transcription had increased DE (PPARGC1A at depletion LS-HF). GLUT4 comprised ≈30% of total GLUT mRNA expression at rest. Remarkably, by 72 h of repletion expression of ...
Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is an essential component of the mitochondrial electron transfer system and ... more Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is an essential component of the mitochondrial electron transfer system and a potent antioxidant. The impact of CoQ10 supplementation on mitochondrial capacities and the muscle proteome is largely unknown. This study determined the effect of CoQ10 supplementation on muscle CoQ10 concentrations, antioxidant balance, the proteome, and mitochondrial respiratory capacities. In a randomized cross-over design, six Thoroughbred horses received 1600 mg/d CoQ10 or no supplement (control) for 30-d periods separated by a 60-d washout. Muscle samples were taken at the end of each period. Muscle CoQ10 and glutathione (GSH) concentrations were determined using mass spectrometry, antioxidant activities by fluorometry, mitochondrial enzyme activities and oxidative stress by colorimetry, and mitochondrial respiratory capacities by high-resolution respirometry. Data were analyzed using mixed linear models with period, supplementation, and period × supplementation as fixed effects...
In the mitochondria, complexes I and III of the electron transport system (ETS) generate reactive... more In the mitochondria, complexes I and III of the electron transport system (ETS) generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) during exercise that are reduced by antioxidants to mitigate oxidative stress. Among these antioxidants are thiol-based antioxidants such as glutathione as well as Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), which also transports electrons from complex I and II to complex III. Recurrent exertional rhabdomyolysis (RER) is associated with aberrant calcium regulation with the potential for excessive mitochondrial calcium uptake impacting mitochondria and ROS. We hypothesized that there would be a decrease in CoQ10 concentrations, as well as an increase in ROS and peptide subunits of ETS complexes in thoroughbreds with RER. Concentrations of CoQ10 (LC/MS/MS), thiol-based antioxidants (LC/MS/MS), ROS (OxiSelect, Cell Biolabs), and citrate synthase activity (CS fluorometry) were determined in gluteal muscle biopsie from thoroughbred mares with a history of, but not currently experiencing, rhabdomyolysis (n = 20, RER; mean ± SD age 3.3 ± 1.3 yr), compared with healthy race trained mares at the same facility (n = 8, control; age 2.9 ± 0.8 yr). RER and control were compared by unpaired t-test. Subunit peptide components of the ETS were analyzed in 5 RER and 5 control mares using tandem mass tag proteomic analysis (FDR
Performance in 3-d event horses is influenced by the horse's innate ability combined with its lev... more Performance in 3-d event horses is influenced by the horse's innate ability combined with its level of fitness. Heart rate (HR) and blood lactate have been routinely measured in laboratory settings to evaluate fitness and/or ability in horses. To investigate whether these measurements are useful in assessing performance during competition, 11 horses competing at the advanced and CIC*** levels at an American horse trial were studied. Each horse's HR and speed were measured during the crosscountry phase of the competition using the KER ClockIt Sport smartphone application along with a Bluetooth compatible heart rate monitor. Plasma lactate was measured 5 min after the conclusion of crosscountry. The V200 was estimated from each horse's average HR and speed during crosscountry using a HR-speed relationship that was determined in a series of separate standarized exercise tests. These measurements were evaluated relative to the horse's final finish position at the competiton. Heart rate averaged 199.4 ± 6.9 bpm (range 192e207 bpm) and speed averaged 536.0 ± 14.4 m/min (range 514e564 m/min) during crosscountry. Plasma lactate averaged 9.9 ± 4.0 mmol/L (range 4.8e17.8 mmol/L). Lactate was positively correlated with heart rate during crosscountry (R 2 ¼ 0.82). Lactate was less strongly correlated with speed (R 2 ¼ 0.40). Heart rate was poorly correlated with speed (R 2 ¼ 0.14). Top finishers had lowest HR and lowest plasma lactates. Top-finishing horses had higher V200. An interesting finding was that horses with higher V200 (>550 m/min) during crosscountry had lower (better) dressage scores. Since a high V200 is indicative of a fitter horse, this may seem counterintuitive in the eventing community where conventional wisdom says that fitter horses do less well in dressage. This study suggests just the opposite; the same qualities that allow horses to run around crosscountry at near optimal speeds with low HRs and lactates contribute to better dressage performances. Results suggest that measuring heart rate, speed and lactate during crosscountry may provide useful insights into an event horse's fitness and/or ability.
Performance in 3-d event horses is influenced by the horse's innate ability combined with its lev... more Performance in 3-d event horses is influenced by the horse's innate ability combined with its level of fitness. Heart rate (HR) and blood lactate have been routinely measured in laboratory settings to evaluate fitness and/or ability in horses. To investigate whether these measurements are useful in assessing performance during competition, 11 horses competing at the advanced and CIC*** levels at an American horse trial were studied. Each horse's HR and speed were measured during the crosscountry phase of the competition using the KER ClockIt Sport smartphone application along with a Bluetooth compatible heart rate monitor. Plasma lactate was measured 5 min after the conclusion of crosscountry. The V200 was estimated from each horse's average HR and speed during crosscountry using a HR-speed relationship that was determined in a series of separate standarized exercise tests. These measurements were evaluated relative to the horse's final finish position at the competiton. Heart rate averaged 199.4 ± 6.9 bpm (range 192e207 bpm) and speed averaged 536.0 ± 14.4 m/min (range 514e564 m/min) during crosscountry. Plasma lactate averaged 9.9 ± 4.0 mmol/L (range 4.8e17.8 mmol/L). Lactate was positively correlated with heart rate during crosscountry (R 2 ¼ 0.82). Lactate was less strongly correlated with speed (R 2 ¼ 0.40). Heart rate was poorly correlated with speed (R 2 ¼ 0.14). Top finishers had lowest HR and lowest plasma lactates. Top-finishing horses had higher V200. An interesting finding was that horses with higher V200 (>550 m/min) during crosscountry had lower (better) dressage scores. Since a high V200 is indicative of a fitter horse, this may seem counterintuitive in the eventing community where conventional wisdom says that fitter horses do less well in dressage. This study suggests just the opposite; the same qualities that allow horses to run around crosscountry at near optimal speeds with low HRs and lactates contribute to better dressage performances. Results suggest that measuring heart rate, speed and lactate during crosscountry may provide useful insights into an event horse's fitness and/or ability.
Water, hay and feed intake was measured in 6 Thoroughbred racehorses (age 3.3 ± 0.5 y; BW 468 ± 1... more Water, hay and feed intake was measured in 6 Thoroughbred racehorses (age 3.3 ± 0.5 y; BW 468 ± 14.1 kg) for 56 d at a training center in Lexington, Kentucky during July and August 2016. Horses were kept in stalls in a typical race training environment and offered free-choice timothy hay. A concentrate formulated for racehorses was fed in 3 meals/d. Each morning, hay was weighed before feeding and placed in a ground feeder. After 24h, the remaining hay in the feeder was removed and weighed to determine consumption. Water intake was measured 3 times per day. Racehorses were typically ridden 6 d a week and hand walked once a week for 15 min. Training consisted of either galloping, jogging, or 600e1000 m breezes. Horses galloped 1600e2400 m an average of 2.7 times per week. Exercise sessions averaged 20 min. After an exercise bout, racehorses typically hand walked for 20 min and hand grazed for 15 min. During the study, the horses either raced or breezed weekly except for the week after a race when the horses usually only walked and jogged. Horses raced a total of 11 times during the study. Because of logistics associated with racing, hay and water intake was not measured on race days. All horses received furosemide before racing. Differences in hay and water intake by worktype were analyzed using one-way ANOVA. Water intake averaged 30.3 L/d and was higher the day after racing and on gallop days than when the horses were hand-walked. There was a positive relationship between average daily temperature, which ranged from 21 to 28 C, and water intake. Water intake increased 4e5% for each 1 C increase in temperature. Free-choice hay intake averaged 4.4 kg/d and was unaffected by work type, temperature or water intake. Hay intake averaged 1% BW which was lower than expected, but was similar to intakes reported for racehorses in Australia. Concentrate intake equaled 7.7 ± 0.6 kg/d. Horses maintained BW throughout the study. DE intakes averaged 31.5 ± 0.9 Mcal/d which is in agreement with 2007 NRC recommendations for racehorses.
Dr. Harold (Skip) Hintz spent more than 35 years investigating the intricacies of equine nutritio... more Dr. Harold (Skip) Hintz spent more than 35 years investigating the intricacies of equine nutrition, often delving deeper into the science than many of his predecessors. During that time, he greatly influenced both the direction of and rapid advances in equine nutrition and forever changed the understanding of the horse's digestive capabilities and nutrient requirements. Perhaps more importantly, he delighted in sharing his knowledge of nutrition with thousands of enthusiasts worldwide.
prebiotic additive exhibited a lower inflamm-aging status post treatment when compared with horse... more prebiotic additive exhibited a lower inflamm-aging status post treatment when compared with horses receiving the other 3 diets. Thus, the addition of ActivAge prebiotic may help protect against the negative effects of aging on immune response in old horses.
prebiotic additive exhibited a lower inflamm-aging status post treatment when compared with horse... more prebiotic additive exhibited a lower inflamm-aging status post treatment when compared with horses receiving the other 3 diets. Thus, the addition of ActivAge prebiotic may help protect against the negative effects of aging on immune response in old horses.
This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative... more This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY
Equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID), also known as equine Cushing's syndrome, typ... more Equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID), also known as equine Cushing's syndrome, typically occurs in horses older than 15 years of age and is characterized by hair coat abnormalities, muscle atrophy, increased susceptibility to chronic infections and laminitis. Moreover, a reduction in insulin sensitivity has been described in horses with PPID compared to younger adult horses (Klinkhamer et al., 2011); however, the difference in insulin sensitivity between horses with PPID and agedmatched controls has not been well characterized. The objective of this study was to determine if aged horses with PPID had reduced insulin sensitivity when compared to healthy aged horses. In this study, twelve horses older than 20 years of age were classified as either PPID (n¼6; 25.0AE2.5 yrs; meanAESD) or Control (n¼6; 25.7AE2.0 yrs). PPID classification was based on a resting ACTH greater than 50 pg/mL (PPID: 98.4AE73.7 pg/mL; Control: 23.3AE8.2 pg/mL) and serum cortisol greater than 1 mg/dL19-20 hours post dexamethasone administration (PPID: 2.27AE0.92 mg/dL; Control: 0.46AE0.32 mg/dL). Insulin
There is a paucity of data relating to the vitamin D status of racehorses. We hypothesised that t... more There is a paucity of data relating to the vitamin D status of racehorses. We hypothesised that the management of racehorses in Hong Kong (HK) predisposes to low vitamin D status unless they receive dietary supplementation. Serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D2 (25OHD2), 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (25OHD3) and total 25-hydroxyvitamin D (total 25OHD) for 79 non-grazing HK racehorses were compared with those for 22 racehorses training in the United Kingdom (UK) that grazed for ≥1 h/d, and for which published data exists. A nested group of 41 HK horses was sampled twice to determine the effect of the duration in HK on vitamin D status. The HK horses had significantly lower serum concentrations of total 25OHD and 25OHD2 than the UK horses; 25OHD2 was undetectable in 15/79 HK sera and serum concentrations of 25OHD2 declined with the duration in HK. The main determinants of vitamin D status were assessed using linear regression; the retained variables were the 25OHD3 concentration and th...
Horses have a slow rate of muscle glycogen repletion relative to other species for unknown reason... more Horses have a slow rate of muscle glycogen repletion relative to other species for unknown reasons. Our aim was to determine the expression of glucose transporters (GLUT) and genes impacting GLUT4 expression and translocation in the gluteal muscle. Five fit Thoroughbred horses performed glycogen-depleting exercises on high-starch (HS, 2869 g starch/day) and low-starch, high-fat diets (LS-HF, 358 g starch/d) with gluteal muscle biopsies obtained before and after depletion and during repletion. Muscle glycogen declined by ≈30% on both diets with little increase during repletion on LS-HF. Transcriptomic analysis identified differential expression (DE) of only 2/12 genes impacting GLUT4 translocation (two subunits of AMP protein kinase) and only at depletion on LS-HF. Only 1/13 genes encoding proteins that promote GLUT4 transcription had increased DE (PPARGC1A at depletion LS-HF). GLUT4 comprised ≈30% of total GLUT mRNA expression at rest. Remarkably, by 72 h of repletion expression of ...
Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is an essential component of the mitochondrial electron transfer system and ... more Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is an essential component of the mitochondrial electron transfer system and a potent antioxidant. The impact of CoQ10 supplementation on mitochondrial capacities and the muscle proteome is largely unknown. This study determined the effect of CoQ10 supplementation on muscle CoQ10 concentrations, antioxidant balance, the proteome, and mitochondrial respiratory capacities. In a randomized cross-over design, six Thoroughbred horses received 1600 mg/d CoQ10 or no supplement (control) for 30-d periods separated by a 60-d washout. Muscle samples were taken at the end of each period. Muscle CoQ10 and glutathione (GSH) concentrations were determined using mass spectrometry, antioxidant activities by fluorometry, mitochondrial enzyme activities and oxidative stress by colorimetry, and mitochondrial respiratory capacities by high-resolution respirometry. Data were analyzed using mixed linear models with period, supplementation, and period × supplementation as fixed effects...
In the mitochondria, complexes I and III of the electron transport system (ETS) generate reactive... more In the mitochondria, complexes I and III of the electron transport system (ETS) generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) during exercise that are reduced by antioxidants to mitigate oxidative stress. Among these antioxidants are thiol-based antioxidants such as glutathione as well as Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), which also transports electrons from complex I and II to complex III. Recurrent exertional rhabdomyolysis (RER) is associated with aberrant calcium regulation with the potential for excessive mitochondrial calcium uptake impacting mitochondria and ROS. We hypothesized that there would be a decrease in CoQ10 concentrations, as well as an increase in ROS and peptide subunits of ETS complexes in thoroughbreds with RER. Concentrations of CoQ10 (LC/MS/MS), thiol-based antioxidants (LC/MS/MS), ROS (OxiSelect, Cell Biolabs), and citrate synthase activity (CS fluorometry) were determined in gluteal muscle biopsie from thoroughbred mares with a history of, but not currently experiencing, rhabdomyolysis (n = 20, RER; mean ± SD age 3.3 ± 1.3 yr), compared with healthy race trained mares at the same facility (n = 8, control; age 2.9 ± 0.8 yr). RER and control were compared by unpaired t-test. Subunit peptide components of the ETS were analyzed in 5 RER and 5 control mares using tandem mass tag proteomic analysis (FDR
Performance in 3-d event horses is influenced by the horse's innate ability combined with its lev... more Performance in 3-d event horses is influenced by the horse's innate ability combined with its level of fitness. Heart rate (HR) and blood lactate have been routinely measured in laboratory settings to evaluate fitness and/or ability in horses. To investigate whether these measurements are useful in assessing performance during competition, 11 horses competing at the advanced and CIC*** levels at an American horse trial were studied. Each horse's HR and speed were measured during the crosscountry phase of the competition using the KER ClockIt Sport smartphone application along with a Bluetooth compatible heart rate monitor. Plasma lactate was measured 5 min after the conclusion of crosscountry. The V200 was estimated from each horse's average HR and speed during crosscountry using a HR-speed relationship that was determined in a series of separate standarized exercise tests. These measurements were evaluated relative to the horse's final finish position at the competiton. Heart rate averaged 199.4 ± 6.9 bpm (range 192e207 bpm) and speed averaged 536.0 ± 14.4 m/min (range 514e564 m/min) during crosscountry. Plasma lactate averaged 9.9 ± 4.0 mmol/L (range 4.8e17.8 mmol/L). Lactate was positively correlated with heart rate during crosscountry (R 2 ¼ 0.82). Lactate was less strongly correlated with speed (R 2 ¼ 0.40). Heart rate was poorly correlated with speed (R 2 ¼ 0.14). Top finishers had lowest HR and lowest plasma lactates. Top-finishing horses had higher V200. An interesting finding was that horses with higher V200 (>550 m/min) during crosscountry had lower (better) dressage scores. Since a high V200 is indicative of a fitter horse, this may seem counterintuitive in the eventing community where conventional wisdom says that fitter horses do less well in dressage. This study suggests just the opposite; the same qualities that allow horses to run around crosscountry at near optimal speeds with low HRs and lactates contribute to better dressage performances. Results suggest that measuring heart rate, speed and lactate during crosscountry may provide useful insights into an event horse's fitness and/or ability.
Performance in 3-d event horses is influenced by the horse's innate ability combined with its lev... more Performance in 3-d event horses is influenced by the horse's innate ability combined with its level of fitness. Heart rate (HR) and blood lactate have been routinely measured in laboratory settings to evaluate fitness and/or ability in horses. To investigate whether these measurements are useful in assessing performance during competition, 11 horses competing at the advanced and CIC*** levels at an American horse trial were studied. Each horse's HR and speed were measured during the crosscountry phase of the competition using the KER ClockIt Sport smartphone application along with a Bluetooth compatible heart rate monitor. Plasma lactate was measured 5 min after the conclusion of crosscountry. The V200 was estimated from each horse's average HR and speed during crosscountry using a HR-speed relationship that was determined in a series of separate standarized exercise tests. These measurements were evaluated relative to the horse's final finish position at the competiton. Heart rate averaged 199.4 ± 6.9 bpm (range 192e207 bpm) and speed averaged 536.0 ± 14.4 m/min (range 514e564 m/min) during crosscountry. Plasma lactate averaged 9.9 ± 4.0 mmol/L (range 4.8e17.8 mmol/L). Lactate was positively correlated with heart rate during crosscountry (R 2 ¼ 0.82). Lactate was less strongly correlated with speed (R 2 ¼ 0.40). Heart rate was poorly correlated with speed (R 2 ¼ 0.14). Top finishers had lowest HR and lowest plasma lactates. Top-finishing horses had higher V200. An interesting finding was that horses with higher V200 (>550 m/min) during crosscountry had lower (better) dressage scores. Since a high V200 is indicative of a fitter horse, this may seem counterintuitive in the eventing community where conventional wisdom says that fitter horses do less well in dressage. This study suggests just the opposite; the same qualities that allow horses to run around crosscountry at near optimal speeds with low HRs and lactates contribute to better dressage performances. Results suggest that measuring heart rate, speed and lactate during crosscountry may provide useful insights into an event horse's fitness and/or ability.
Water, hay and feed intake was measured in 6 Thoroughbred racehorses (age 3.3 ± 0.5 y; BW 468 ± 1... more Water, hay and feed intake was measured in 6 Thoroughbred racehorses (age 3.3 ± 0.5 y; BW 468 ± 14.1 kg) for 56 d at a training center in Lexington, Kentucky during July and August 2016. Horses were kept in stalls in a typical race training environment and offered free-choice timothy hay. A concentrate formulated for racehorses was fed in 3 meals/d. Each morning, hay was weighed before feeding and placed in a ground feeder. After 24h, the remaining hay in the feeder was removed and weighed to determine consumption. Water intake was measured 3 times per day. Racehorses were typically ridden 6 d a week and hand walked once a week for 15 min. Training consisted of either galloping, jogging, or 600e1000 m breezes. Horses galloped 1600e2400 m an average of 2.7 times per week. Exercise sessions averaged 20 min. After an exercise bout, racehorses typically hand walked for 20 min and hand grazed for 15 min. During the study, the horses either raced or breezed weekly except for the week after a race when the horses usually only walked and jogged. Horses raced a total of 11 times during the study. Because of logistics associated with racing, hay and water intake was not measured on race days. All horses received furosemide before racing. Differences in hay and water intake by worktype were analyzed using one-way ANOVA. Water intake averaged 30.3 L/d and was higher the day after racing and on gallop days than when the horses were hand-walked. There was a positive relationship between average daily temperature, which ranged from 21 to 28 C, and water intake. Water intake increased 4e5% for each 1 C increase in temperature. Free-choice hay intake averaged 4.4 kg/d and was unaffected by work type, temperature or water intake. Hay intake averaged 1% BW which was lower than expected, but was similar to intakes reported for racehorses in Australia. Concentrate intake equaled 7.7 ± 0.6 kg/d. Horses maintained BW throughout the study. DE intakes averaged 31.5 ± 0.9 Mcal/d which is in agreement with 2007 NRC recommendations for racehorses.
Dr. Harold (Skip) Hintz spent more than 35 years investigating the intricacies of equine nutritio... more Dr. Harold (Skip) Hintz spent more than 35 years investigating the intricacies of equine nutrition, often delving deeper into the science than many of his predecessors. During that time, he greatly influenced both the direction of and rapid advances in equine nutrition and forever changed the understanding of the horse's digestive capabilities and nutrient requirements. Perhaps more importantly, he delighted in sharing his knowledge of nutrition with thousands of enthusiasts worldwide.
prebiotic additive exhibited a lower inflamm-aging status post treatment when compared with horse... more prebiotic additive exhibited a lower inflamm-aging status post treatment when compared with horses receiving the other 3 diets. Thus, the addition of ActivAge prebiotic may help protect against the negative effects of aging on immune response in old horses.
prebiotic additive exhibited a lower inflamm-aging status post treatment when compared with horse... more prebiotic additive exhibited a lower inflamm-aging status post treatment when compared with horses receiving the other 3 diets. Thus, the addition of ActivAge prebiotic may help protect against the negative effects of aging on immune response in old horses.
Uploads
Papers by Joe Pagan