Papers by Peter Bystricky
História. Revue o dejinách a spoločnosti, 2018
In ancient Greece and Rome the hottest period of the year was called the dog days, because it was... more In ancient Greece and Rome the hottest period of the year was called the dog days, because it was believed that the heat was caused by Sirius, which the Greeks and Romans called the Dog. Allegedly, after its heliactic rising or first-visibility, this star heated up the already hot summer sun, which then caused suffering to people and animals, destroyed crops and dried up streams and springs. In an effort to moderate the summer heat, bring rain, protect the crops and prevent famine, the Greeks developed several ceremonies. They attempted to explain their origin with fables, which are still known today. In ancient Rome the sacrificing of dogs was part of several ancient agricultural and pastoral festivals. Although some were held at the time of the heliactic rising or setting of Sirius, their connection with this phenomenon is unclear.
História zadnými dverami, 2018
Stredoveké hrady na Slovensku : Život, kultúra, spoločnosť, Part I, 2017
Our idea of a castle, by definition a fortified private residence in medieval Europe, is a massiv... more Our idea of a castle, by definition a fortified private residence in medieval Europe, is a massive stone building on a hill or surrounded by a moat, with thick stone walls, a keep or palace, lofty towers, fortified gate with portcullis and a drawbridge. The first castles were, in fact, much smaller, simpler and built of wood. The origins of the castles can be traced back to three types of fortifications – so called motte in France, bergfried in Germany, and Slavic fortified settlements of various size. The earliest motte castles, which consisted of wooden tower (donjon) and timber palisade built on natural or artificial mound, and surrounded by one or more ditches, were neither perfect nor impregnable, but in flat landscape offered sufficient protection against sudden local attack. One of these castles was precisely described by Jean de Colmieu writing around 1130. Several timber castles are depicted in the well-known Bayeux tapestry. The tapestry also offers a unique insight into castle-building. Workers are erecting mound at Hastings, layer by layer, on top of which already stands partially completed timber palisade or tower. The construction of this castle is also described by Norman poet Robert Wace in his verse chronicle Roman de Rou. Carpenters, who disembarked after archers and knights, brought all the material with them. Wooden stakes were already shaped and pierced, and the pins were cut and prepared in large barrels. Before the evening, the fort was finished. Medieval castle had residential, economic and administrative functions. Military function was mostly secondary. Castle was also a centre of power and business, a symbol of owner’s wealth and influence. It became a subject of admiration and even lower aristocracy wanted their castles to be as much beautiful as possible, in order to impress their noble guests. This is clearly demonstrated by contemporary chronicler Lambert of Ardres, the author of History of the Counts of Guînes, who vividly described one of these timber donjons. The three-storey structure contained chambers, halls, kitchen, storerooms and even a private chapel. Although stone began to replace wood as a building material by the 11th century, timber castles were still common in the 12th century. William the Conqueror turned the castle, originally a defensive weapon, into offensive and psychological weapon, and intentionally placed them strategically in countryside and towns as well. Similar tactics were later used by crusaders in the Middle East. On the other hand, the crusaders, who were usually outnumbered and under pressure, brought home many innovations, which further enhanced design and military fortification of the castles.
Byzantinoslovaca, Vol. VI , 2017
Author deals with the second half of Justinian’s reign, with the focus on Lombard-Gepid conflict ... more Author deals with the second half of Justinian’s reign, with the focus on Lombard-Gepid conflict in the early 550s. Ambitious emperor, who tried to restore the glory of the Roman Empire, was undeniably very successful in the 530s, when he destroyed kingdoms of Vandals and Goths. In the 540s, however, he had to face new threats and challenges – rebellions and mutinies in Africa, renewed wars in Italy and the Orient, catastrophic plague epidemic and devastating Slavic and Bulgarian raids etc. Amid all these problems, Justinian became also actively engaged in Northern Illyricum, where his policy was to retain control of vital route to Italia, to stop expansive Franks, to eliminate Gepid threat, and to ensure the security of the Balkan provinces. All four main objectives were achieved not by spilling Byzantine blood, but through skillful diplomacy. In 546 or 547, he forged a military alliance with Lombards and granted them southern Pannonia, right between the Franks and Gepids. This move subsequently led first to hostility between Lombards and Gepids (both Justinian’s allies) and finally to a bloody battle. The cause of the war, in which Gepids suffered crushing defeat but no major territorial losses, was, however, unknown either to Lombard sources or to Procopius and Jordanes. The year 552, when Lombards defeated Gepids, Narses won victory over Goths, and Slavs stopped their raids, marks the end of the most critical period of Justinian’s reign.
INGENII LAUS. Zborník štúdií venovaný jubilujúcemu prof. PhDr. Jánovi Lukačkovi, CSc, 2017
Royal treasure (thesaurus) was as important as the kingdom (regnum) itself. All kings, minor or m... more Royal treasure (thesaurus) was as important as the kingdom (regnum) itself. All kings, minor or major, had their treasures, carefully stored and guarded. In the written sources, however, their treasures and riches are mentioned mainly in a case of danger, coup or war. The first part of the article deals with the treasure of the Nibelungs (Niflungs) in the Germanic epic. Although the story is based on real events, this treasure of the Burgundians, probably captured by Huns, is not documented in contemporary accounts of the defeat. In the second part, the author focuses on treasures of the Franks, Vandals, Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Lombards and Gepids. Some of them were so huge that even Emperor Justinian was genuinely impressed by their splendor.
Zwierzeta : w historii, literaturze i sztuce Europy, 2017
The article deals with Sirius, the brightest star in the sky, and its supposed connection with th... more The article deals with Sirius, the brightest star in the sky, and its supposed connection with the period of summer heat, known as dog days, which started after the star’s heliacal rising. It was believed that Sirius, known by the Greeks and Romans as the Dog or Dog Star, caused the heat by inflaming fire of the Sun and had other baleful effects on plants, humans and especially dogs. Therefore ancient poets, starting with Homer, gave the star epithets such as fiery, flaming, parching, dry, sultry, thirsty, etc. The Dog was used more frequently as its nickname and was so ancient that nobody knew where it came from. This was explained by several myths and the star was identified as Orion’s dog, dog Laelaps or dog Maera. Moreover, some obscure festivals and dog sacrifices in Greece and Italy might have been connected with the star’s rising and setting.
Od symbolu k slovu. Podoby stredovekej komunikácie, 2016
Pre-literal societies preserved their memories and history from generation to generation by oral ... more Pre-literal societies preserved their memories and history from generation to generation by oral tradition. The songs about heroes and ancestors among Germanic peoples were mentioned by Tacitus, Ammianus Marcellinus, Jordanes, Paul the Deacon and early medieval authors. The oral literature as such was thus one of the reasons, results and forms of the communication not only between people, but also across the time, as poets or reciters used to travel and meet with other artists at the courts. The second part of the article briefly deals with the so called Ermanarich saga and its development since the 6th to the 13th century.
Človek a svet zvierat v stredoveku, 2015
Contradictory Perception of dog in History
Človek a svet zvierat v stredoveku, 2015
Dogs – Healers
Človek a svet zvierat v stredoveku, 2015
The likeable medieval werewolf
Človek a svet zvierat v sredoveku, 2015
The black dog
Historický časopis, 2015, Vol. 63, No. 5, Dec 2015
The subject of the study is the transformation of humans into wolves in medieval chivalric romanc... more The subject of the study is the transformation of humans into wolves in medieval chivalric romances, rhymed tales (lais), educational works, Norse sagas, Russian literature and Serbian folk songs. The medieval idea of a werewolf was anatomically an ordinary wolf, but it retained human memory, mind, habits and upbringing. People, almost always men, became wolves either voluntarily with help from magic, wolf skin or enchanted objects such as rings, or involuntarily when somebody cursed or betrayed them. In medieval chivalrous literature, the traitor was always a woman, either a malicious wife or jealous step-mother. One of the conditions for a werewolf’s return to human form was clothes, a motif already found in the antiquity. Werewolves with cyclical transformations hid their clothes, because without them they would remain wolves until the end of their lives. the details of transformation into wolves in the Primary Chronicle, Russian heroic poems (byliny) or Serbian folklore are not known, but the circumstances indicate that this ability was attributed to wizards and heroes.
Slovenské dejiny v dejinách Európy : Vybrané kapitoly, 2015
Author has asked an interesting question in his study. That is, the
question of the so-called bes... more Author has asked an interesting question in his study. That is, the
question of the so-called bestowing of rule by Slavs to non-Slavic rulers chosen by the Slavic community. This action is, as far as world history is concerned, known from the case of the Rurik dynasty as Russian rulers. The Slavs
from Central Europe acted in this way in the case of the Frankish merchant
Samo. As opposed to the Ruriks, Samo did no establish his own dynasty, but
the fact of “appointing” foreign rulers in itself allows for certain generalizations. It allows us, for example, to form the hypothesis that the number and
quantity of Slavic tribes and their degrees of development made it impossible
to identify their “own” prince, so it was easier to appoint an able foreign ruler
to protect and control the territory. Peter Bystrický also presents a terminological question – the question of the naming of rulers. This question has
recently launched a debate, which was not initiated by the scientific community itself, but by the political sphere and nationalistic mythology.
Byzantinoslovaca, Vol. V, 2014
Author deals with the first twenty years of long Justinian’s reign. After he made peace with Pers... more Author deals with the first twenty years of long Justinian’s reign. After he made peace with Persians and crushed domestic opposition, the young emperor focused on strengthening the Empire. He improved defence of Danube frontiers by rebuilding neglected or abandoned fortresses on both sides of the river and by settling barbarians. He forged new alliances with his neighbours and renewed the old ones. At the same time, emperor meddled in the affairs of Vandals in Africa and Goths in Italy, and eventually started wars against them. Both kingdoms collapsed rather quickly and their kings surrendered. Subsequently, the recovered territories were annexed to the Empire. This period of Justinian’s reign was remarkably successful and his achievements truly impressive. The favourable conditions, however, did not last for long and the early 540s brought him new enemies, threats and challenges.
Historické štúdie, Vol. 48, Dec 5, 2014
The metamorphosis – or transformation – of gods and humans into animals was a common theme in Gre... more The metamorphosis – or transformation – of gods and humans into animals was a common theme in Greek mythology. As the wolf was generally associated with killing, plundering and death and deemed vicious and cruel, the transformation into wolf was regarded as a punishment for severe, sacrilegious or abominable crimes. Zeus punished mythological Arcadian king Lycaon, who either sacrificed a baby on the altar or served human flesh to divine guest, by turning him into a wolf. In another fable, Poseidon changed voracious suitors into wolves, because they slaughtered sheep. Shape shifter in Petronius’s macabre story, however, did not commit any crime. He is the first known werewolf who was transformed into a beast unwillingly during the night among tombstones, returning into his human form by dawn. There is no moralizing point in this story, its only point is to entertain and frighten listeners.
The only region of ancient Greece connected with lycanthropy was Arcadia, pastoral and mountainous country in the Peloponnese. Several authors mentioned secret rituals involving human sacrifice and cannibalism. They described a rite how a young man of a particular family was undressed and his clothes hung on an oak tree. Thereafter he swam across a lake and emerged as a wolf. In this shape he remained 9 years. A closer look into the description reveals that most likely it was an old ritual of initiation or rite of passage. The lycanthropy became also the subject for physicians of Late Antiquity. They considered it a mental disorder, a form of melancholy that can be treated. The patients suffering from lycanthropy were pale, their eyes and tongue dry, legs covered with scars. This type of melancholy had to be treated by bloodletting, baths, diet and purgation. Opium and other soporific remedies were recommended for keeping patients sedated. The shamanistic or spiritual transformation into wolf practiced by magicians is noticed by Herodotus. Vergil mentions a story of Moeris who could change himself into wolf by means of some Pontic herbs.
Wolf in Greek myths was mainly associated with Apollo, the god of light, oracles, music and archery. Apollo was given several titles (Lycius, Lyceus, Lycaeus, Lycegenes) which were usually identified by Greeks with word lykos “wolf”. Apollo’s wolf was a guiding animal, messenger, guardian, protector of divine offspring. Apollo’s mother, Latona, came to Delos disguised as a she-wolf and even gave birth to Apollo and Artemis as a she-wolf. Later she was guided by friendly wolves to the river Xanthus. Wolf was the first animal that paid tribute to Apollo after he slew Python. During the mythical great flood, the Parnassians followed wolf's roar and founded town Lycoreia. Wolf protected the treasures of Apollo’s temple at Delphi and killed the thief. A bronze statue of wolf stood near the great altar in the temple. Mythological king Athamas, being banished from Boeotia, founded a town where he witnessed wolves devouring sheep, but abandoned it when they saw him. The attack of a wolf on the strongest bull decided the election of new leader in Argos and eventually established the worship of Apollo Lyceus in this town. Apollo taught Sicyonians how to get rid of wolves.
In Italy, the wolf was sacred animal to Mars, Roman god of war and agriculture. According a famous myth, Romulus and Remus were fostered by she-wolf. The wolf was also associated with chthonic deities Dis Pater and Soranus. Chthonic aspect of wolf was most apparent in central Italy, where local prehistoric beliefs were transformed into purification rituals. Romans derived the name of Lupercalia from lupus “wolf”, but the etymology remains uncertain. The wolf cult on the Mt. Soracte was practiced by a certain families or priests called Hirpi. Their name is also derived from Oscan word hirpus „wolf“. The wolf represented Etruscan god of death Aita, who was depicted as a man with wolfish cap or man with a wolf’s head.
Historický časopis, Vol. 62, No. 4, Nov 28, 2014
The subject of the study is the transformation of humans into wolves in medieval chivalric romanc... more The subject of the study is the transformation of humans into wolves in medieval chivalric romances, rhymed tales (lais), educational works, Norse sagas, Russian literature and Serbian folk songs. The medieval idea of a werewolf was anatomically an ordinary wolf, but it retained human memory, mind, habits and upbringing. People, almost always men, became wolves either voluntarily with help from magic, wolf skin or enchanted objects such as rings, or involuntarily when somebody cursed or betrayed them. In medieval chivalrous literature, the traitor was always a woman, either a malicious wife or jealous step-mother. One of the conditions for a werewolf’s return to human form was clothes, a motif already found in the antiquity. Werewolves with cyclical transformations hid their clothes, because without them they would remain wolves until the end of their lives. the details of transformation into wolves in the Primary Chronicle, Russian heroic poems (byliny) or Serbian folklore are not known, but the circumstances indicate that this ability was attributed to wizards and heroes.
Európa po Atilovej smrti, 2001
A short article in "História Revue", no file yet
Od Gótov k Ostrogótom, 2010
A short paper in "História", no file yet
Teodorich Veľký a jeho doba, 2003
A short article in "História", no file yet
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Papers by Peter Bystricky
question of the so-called bestowing of rule by Slavs to non-Slavic rulers chosen by the Slavic community. This action is, as far as world history is concerned, known from the case of the Rurik dynasty as Russian rulers. The Slavs
from Central Europe acted in this way in the case of the Frankish merchant
Samo. As opposed to the Ruriks, Samo did no establish his own dynasty, but
the fact of “appointing” foreign rulers in itself allows for certain generalizations. It allows us, for example, to form the hypothesis that the number and
quantity of Slavic tribes and their degrees of development made it impossible
to identify their “own” prince, so it was easier to appoint an able foreign ruler
to protect and control the territory. Peter Bystrický also presents a terminological question – the question of the naming of rulers. This question has
recently launched a debate, which was not initiated by the scientific community itself, but by the political sphere and nationalistic mythology.
The only region of ancient Greece connected with lycanthropy was Arcadia, pastoral and mountainous country in the Peloponnese. Several authors mentioned secret rituals involving human sacrifice and cannibalism. They described a rite how a young man of a particular family was undressed and his clothes hung on an oak tree. Thereafter he swam across a lake and emerged as a wolf. In this shape he remained 9 years. A closer look into the description reveals that most likely it was an old ritual of initiation or rite of passage. The lycanthropy became also the subject for physicians of Late Antiquity. They considered it a mental disorder, a form of melancholy that can be treated. The patients suffering from lycanthropy were pale, their eyes and tongue dry, legs covered with scars. This type of melancholy had to be treated by bloodletting, baths, diet and purgation. Opium and other soporific remedies were recommended for keeping patients sedated. The shamanistic or spiritual transformation into wolf practiced by magicians is noticed by Herodotus. Vergil mentions a story of Moeris who could change himself into wolf by means of some Pontic herbs.
Wolf in Greek myths was mainly associated with Apollo, the god of light, oracles, music and archery. Apollo was given several titles (Lycius, Lyceus, Lycaeus, Lycegenes) which were usually identified by Greeks with word lykos “wolf”. Apollo’s wolf was a guiding animal, messenger, guardian, protector of divine offspring. Apollo’s mother, Latona, came to Delos disguised as a she-wolf and even gave birth to Apollo and Artemis as a she-wolf. Later she was guided by friendly wolves to the river Xanthus. Wolf was the first animal that paid tribute to Apollo after he slew Python. During the mythical great flood, the Parnassians followed wolf's roar and founded town Lycoreia. Wolf protected the treasures of Apollo’s temple at Delphi and killed the thief. A bronze statue of wolf stood near the great altar in the temple. Mythological king Athamas, being banished from Boeotia, founded a town where he witnessed wolves devouring sheep, but abandoned it when they saw him. The attack of a wolf on the strongest bull decided the election of new leader in Argos and eventually established the worship of Apollo Lyceus in this town. Apollo taught Sicyonians how to get rid of wolves.
In Italy, the wolf was sacred animal to Mars, Roman god of war and agriculture. According a famous myth, Romulus and Remus were fostered by she-wolf. The wolf was also associated with chthonic deities Dis Pater and Soranus. Chthonic aspect of wolf was most apparent in central Italy, where local prehistoric beliefs were transformed into purification rituals. Romans derived the name of Lupercalia from lupus “wolf”, but the etymology remains uncertain. The wolf cult on the Mt. Soracte was practiced by a certain families or priests called Hirpi. Their name is also derived from Oscan word hirpus „wolf“. The wolf represented Etruscan god of death Aita, who was depicted as a man with wolfish cap or man with a wolf’s head.
question of the so-called bestowing of rule by Slavs to non-Slavic rulers chosen by the Slavic community. This action is, as far as world history is concerned, known from the case of the Rurik dynasty as Russian rulers. The Slavs
from Central Europe acted in this way in the case of the Frankish merchant
Samo. As opposed to the Ruriks, Samo did no establish his own dynasty, but
the fact of “appointing” foreign rulers in itself allows for certain generalizations. It allows us, for example, to form the hypothesis that the number and
quantity of Slavic tribes and their degrees of development made it impossible
to identify their “own” prince, so it was easier to appoint an able foreign ruler
to protect and control the territory. Peter Bystrický also presents a terminological question – the question of the naming of rulers. This question has
recently launched a debate, which was not initiated by the scientific community itself, but by the political sphere and nationalistic mythology.
The only region of ancient Greece connected with lycanthropy was Arcadia, pastoral and mountainous country in the Peloponnese. Several authors mentioned secret rituals involving human sacrifice and cannibalism. They described a rite how a young man of a particular family was undressed and his clothes hung on an oak tree. Thereafter he swam across a lake and emerged as a wolf. In this shape he remained 9 years. A closer look into the description reveals that most likely it was an old ritual of initiation or rite of passage. The lycanthropy became also the subject for physicians of Late Antiquity. They considered it a mental disorder, a form of melancholy that can be treated. The patients suffering from lycanthropy were pale, their eyes and tongue dry, legs covered with scars. This type of melancholy had to be treated by bloodletting, baths, diet and purgation. Opium and other soporific remedies were recommended for keeping patients sedated. The shamanistic or spiritual transformation into wolf practiced by magicians is noticed by Herodotus. Vergil mentions a story of Moeris who could change himself into wolf by means of some Pontic herbs.
Wolf in Greek myths was mainly associated with Apollo, the god of light, oracles, music and archery. Apollo was given several titles (Lycius, Lyceus, Lycaeus, Lycegenes) which were usually identified by Greeks with word lykos “wolf”. Apollo’s wolf was a guiding animal, messenger, guardian, protector of divine offspring. Apollo’s mother, Latona, came to Delos disguised as a she-wolf and even gave birth to Apollo and Artemis as a she-wolf. Later she was guided by friendly wolves to the river Xanthus. Wolf was the first animal that paid tribute to Apollo after he slew Python. During the mythical great flood, the Parnassians followed wolf's roar and founded town Lycoreia. Wolf protected the treasures of Apollo’s temple at Delphi and killed the thief. A bronze statue of wolf stood near the great altar in the temple. Mythological king Athamas, being banished from Boeotia, founded a town where he witnessed wolves devouring sheep, but abandoned it when they saw him. The attack of a wolf on the strongest bull decided the election of new leader in Argos and eventually established the worship of Apollo Lyceus in this town. Apollo taught Sicyonians how to get rid of wolves.
In Italy, the wolf was sacred animal to Mars, Roman god of war and agriculture. According a famous myth, Romulus and Remus were fostered by she-wolf. The wolf was also associated with chthonic deities Dis Pater and Soranus. Chthonic aspect of wolf was most apparent in central Italy, where local prehistoric beliefs were transformed into purification rituals. Romans derived the name of Lupercalia from lupus “wolf”, but the etymology remains uncertain. The wolf cult on the Mt. Soracte was practiced by a certain families or priests called Hirpi. Their name is also derived from Oscan word hirpus „wolf“. The wolf represented Etruscan god of death Aita, who was depicted as a man with wolfish cap or man with a wolf’s head.
Widespread use of dogs since the earliest times and their ambivalent aspect is mirrored in many religions. Dog became a messenger, symbol, attribute or incarnation of many ancient gods, mostly of hunting, forests, healing and, remarkably, of the underworld. Dog (or wolf or jackal) was present in religious beliefs and superstitions concerning death almost everywhere in the world. Dogs either accompanied gods and other creatures from the underworld, or they guarded the entrance to the realm of dead, or gathered, chased, escorted and protected souls. In many mythologies dog thus became the first – or last – thing a soul saw during its afterlife journey to Heaven. Dog's role as a guardian and protector of man is also reflected in the symbolic level. Since dogs could “see” what was invisible to human eyes, people literally all over the world and in different times buried dogs, their heads, bones, teeth or just dog figurines as a talisman under the foundations of buildings, palaces, temples, thresholds of houses, under the walls and city gates, or in human graves, to protect whole community, family or a single person from evil, enemies, thieves, demons, diseases and curse. Dogs, either real or fictional, sleeping or not, were often portrayed on gravestones and sculptures, even in the Middle Ages.
The first chapter deals with dogs in ancient Greece. Next pass through ancient Rome, Celtic and Germanic peoples, Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Then I look closer at attitude to dogs in the monotheistic religions. Although Jews and Muslims also appreciated the dog for his utility and other advantages, they did not usually treat him as a pet. This indifference was adopted by early Christianity, but later on Europe's pre-Christian traditions prevailed and dogs remained an inseparable part of the life during Medieval times. Zoroastrians, however, once worshiped the dog as the second creature after a man. I leave Persia and India and in the last chapter go even further, to Siberia, Far East and America.
The Migration of peoples was a period, in which the Antiquity perished, and the grounds of Middle Ages were laid. Central Europe, including Slovakia did not remain out of these events, it was more than only its part. The events that took place here after Attila´s Empire break-up, affected development in a large part of Europe. It was instable as not only interests of local kingdoms, but also of the Byzantine Empire, Ostrogoths and later also Franks collided here. Only a year after Attila´s death, seven kingdoms arose here, but 20 years later only four of them remained and after next 15 years there were only two of them, the Kingdom of Herules and the Kingdom of Gepids. Later after next 20 years, Heruls were replaced by Langobards who 60 years later destroyed even the last one. Such a turbulent development was not recorded anywhere in Europe. Although all German tribes that in the followed period resided in the Carpathian Basin, at last as a whole or partially left for Italy, a story of each of them is unique. They were led by nobles, commanders and kings, whose names are not unknown even today.
Although the period of the Migration of peoples is perceived particularly as the history of kings and tribes, the retinues of kings and tribal leaders were more important than ever before. It was just the retinues transcending a framework of tribes and families that allowed forming mighty tribe unions since the end of the 2nd century. They were an integrating and stabilizing factor, however, in this period the tribes were eroded by them. Later the retinues, formation and spread of the heavy cavalry allowed arising and developing of vassal relations and together with hardening of a hereditary function of the King, an adoption of Christianity and new social relations opened a way to Middle Ages and feudalism.