Papers by Nino Erkomaishvili
Past and future heritage in the pipelines corridor : Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey = Boru k��m��rl��ri d��hlizind�� ke��mis v�� g��l��c��k irs : Az��rbaycan, G��rc��stan, T��rkiy��
The book is a collection of scientific articles that were presented at a scientific workshop in ... more The book is a collection of scientific articles that were presented at a scientific workshop in Baku in 2010. Scientific articles reflect the results of large-scale archaeological excavations carried out during the construction of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) oil pipeline and the South Caucasus Pipeline (SCP). "Pipelines to Cultural Heritage", edited with an Introduction by Paul Michael Taylor.
Საქართველოს არქეოლოგიის ნარკვევები - Archaeology of Georgia 5th c. BC - 5th c, AD., 2021
იბერია-კოლხეთი, საქართველოს კლასიკური და ადრემედიევური პერიოდის არქეოლოგიურ-ისტორიული კვლევანი, ტ.14, 2018
Earth brick, history, care and conservation
Iberia-Colchis, Researches on the Archaeology and History of Georgia in the Classical and Early Medieval Period, Vol.14, 2018
Adobe – sun-dried, unfired, made of earth with inorganic and organic mixtures for strength (coars... more Adobe – sun-dried, unfired, made of earth with inorganic and organic mixtures for strength (coarse-grained sand, fine chopped hay, chaff, etc) are found in Georgia from the VI – IV millenniums.
Interesting materials have been found during archeological excavations in the southeast Georgia at the middle section of the river Kura (Mtkvari). The most important ancient settlements among them are the following: Arukhlos gora, Shulaveris gora, Khramis didi gora (gora means hill).
Household complexes consist of dwelling and outbuildings.
The main construction material is earth – alluvial, fine-grained, bright gray and yellowish color extracted locally. Adobe was made of well-washed clay with fine-grained sand and chopped chaff for degreasing. Adobe was made with simple wooden tools. The adobes have flat-convex shape – bottom and sides flat and surface – convex. They have no strict geometrical shapes. The main dimensions are as follows: 30 X 20 X 8cm, 30 X 15 X 8cm and 25 X 15 X 7cm. Though, sometimes the adobes are found with 45 and 45cm length and 20 – 25cm width.
Wall is built horizontally with the width of one adobe. The distance between the adobes is 2-3cm. The walls have no foundation and are erected directly from the ground or preliminarily leveled and well-compacted old buildings. Well-washed clay is used as a mortar, which filled the empty spaces between the adobes and the convex parts. This substance becomes very strong after drying. Such straight layer was good foundation for the next layer. Each next layer is narrower than the previous one and is directed inwards to the center forming the rounded roof. Shape of the dwelling building was rounded as well.
The walls are plastered on both sides with a quite strong clay (earth) mortar. Width of the walls is 20-25cm.
Strength of the building was achieved through the well-compacted earth cushion around the foundation. No signs of the wooden poles or other supporting buildings have been found.
Another interesting archeological monument named “Berikldeebi”was found in the east Georgia. This is a temple and fence system, newly introduced in 4 millennium BC. It is a first time that the “Temple culture” appears in this period. Survived fragment of the fence with the length 80m and a temple. The fence has no good foundation, height 1m. It is built with the yellowish strong adobe. Sizes of the adobe are as follows: 44 X 20 X 8cm and sometimes 48 X 25 X 8cm. In the lowest structure the adobe is narrower - 44 X 15 X 8cm. They are laid on the strong gray earth mortar. Width of the mortar in the horizontal and vertical joints is 5-8cm. Survived sections of the fence are quite strong and monolithic and it is very difficult to separate the adobes. These adobes are so called dried adobe that are made of the raw materials, which become stronger with time after gradually drying, unlike the adobes preliminarily dried in the sun. Width of the fence is 2m with 7 adobes.
The temple is built with adobe of the same type and size as in the fence. Here the adobe like in the fence is made of the raw material. Inside and from outside the walls are plastered with well-washed light color earth with the mixture of chaff.
The next period is well developed Kura (Mtkvari)-Araksi culture (IV-III millenniums) presented by the following archeological monuments: Amiranis-gora, Samshvilde, Kvatskhelebi, etc. These archeological monuments have been found in the South and East Georgia.
Evidently architecture of this period is developed. The main type of the buildings have square, rounded angles with the beaten cob floor and flat beaten cob roof, though round houses are still found.
Earth and Adobe is mainly used as construction material. Composition of the adobe is mainly the same, on some occasions are found mixtures of fine obsidian or quartz. Dimensions of the adobe is 36 X 18 X 9cm. The building is supported by the wooden structure. The walls are strictly vertical. Building framework is consisted of the wattling. Wooden poles are used for roofing. In some places of the wall are also found stones. In the rounded angles of some buildings are inserted radial adobes of the special shape. Geometrical shape of the adobes is more perfect than that in the earlier period.
In the following periods, adobe buildings are not found in the archeological ancient settlements., the buildings consist mainly of stone or wattle and earth is used only for plastering.
Archeological adobe is found again in the antic period (V-III centuries BC). In the east Georgia are found two antic settlements: Samadlo and Tsikhia-gora. The buildings are built mostly of stone but all fences are built with adobes on the stone socle. At some places, adobe layer is 1.5m high or higher, however, sometimes are found the buildings built with adobe with the beaten cob floor on the stone banking. Adobe consists of earth, coarse-grained sand and chaff. Geometrical shapes are precise, the adobes are square shape, dimensions: 50 X 50 X 11cm or 50 X 22 X 11cm. Inside and outside the buildings are plastered with earth.
Chronologically the next archeological monument is found in the Hellenistic period. This is Mtskheta acropolis, II-I centuries BC, in the east Georgia near Mtskheta. This is Georgian King's quarters. The acropolis comprises 30 hectares. It is surrounded with strong protection walls, strengthened with towers and buttresses. The fence consists of the stone quadras inserted in the holes made in the rocky soil. Adobe wall is built on the stone quadras. Size of the adobes is as follows: 52 X 52 X 12cm. Wooden poles are inserted along and sidewise of the adobe wall. Height of the walls varies between 2.8 and 3.20m. Estimated height presumably was 6-8m. In the summer of last year were performed the following conservative works: stones did not need any conservation. Adobe layer is completely covered with the modern adobes of the same type. For seeing the adobe of the antic period are inserted small windows.
Adobe of the same type are found in the same region (adobe walls of the above sizes on the massive stone quadras) in the other landmarks: Samtavro, Sarkineti, Urbnisi.
Very interesting monument was found in the nearby region as well, this is Dedoplis mindori (Queens Field). This is a grand system of the temple buildings with 6 hectare aria of rectangle shape. The walls of all buildings are built with the standard size adobe (50X50X12cm and 50X25X12cm), on the stone banking. Width of the walls is mainly 1.10m, plastered with strong earth on both sides. The floors are bitten cob. The buildings are supported by the wooden framework. The wooden poles had no bases and were inserted in the floor. Most of the poles were crowned with capitals with fine ornaments. Many parallels of the fine ornament can be found in the Achemenidical, Parthian and Sasanian art monuments. This complex was destroyed by fire. In 1976 part of the adobe wall was conserved with an organic glass.
The conservation was not completely successful. The adobe consolidated well but changed color (darkened). This fragment of the wall was damaged by chance by the local residents. Besides, several adobes were treated with plexiglass dissolved in dichloroethane in the other laboratory. The results were good, adobe consolidated well, did not change color but due to the political and economical crises in Georgia at that time we failed to apply this method directly on the monument.
All the above landmarks are situated in the east Georgia. As for the west Georgia, here adobe is found in the settlement of the Hellenistic period, IV-III centuries BC. This is Vani settlement. According to some considerations, this is the temple –city complex.
Adobe here is found in the religious buildings of the II-I centuries BC. Foundation of the walls is made of two or three layers of right-angled cut stones. The cut stones are connected to each without mortar. On the top is survived walls built with the adobe with a chaff mixture in them. Sizes of the adobe are as follows: 52 X 52 X 12 and 52 X 26 X 11cm. Temple architecture and religious implements found there show that it was designed for sacrifice to the Zoroastrian gods.
Samples of the adobes were conserved with the chemical substance – diizocianit as an experiment. This method was developed in Samarkand by scientists of Uzbekistan Archeological Institute A. Abdurazakov and M. Reutova. At present the samples are in Vani Archeological Museum. Their state is satisfactory but the monument itself was not treated with this substance due to its high toxicity.
Though this method was applied in 80-th of the XX-th century for conservation of the fence of the ancient settlement Afrasiab belonging to XI-IV century BC and landmarks Ak-tepa and Shash-tepa in Tashkent, state of these landmarks is unknown to me.
As an experiment, we tested small fragments of adobe with Polybutilmetakrilat. They became fragile. So the result was not interesting.
This is all the experts of my country and I myself know about the adobe conservation methods.
Taking into consideration all the above it is clear that attention should be drawn to adobe conservation, first due to the existence of the important landmarks and second, because of peculiar climate of Georgia (Snow, frost in winter and rain, drought in summer). Unfortunately, this problem is not solved successfully in Georgia, because the listed chemicals are expensive and area of the buildings to be conserved is large. Therefore, it is important to find cheap and effective means for conservation.
Georgia is a country rich of historical and cultural monuments; consequently, conservation and re... more Georgia is a country rich of historical and cultural monuments; consequently, conservation and restoration of monuments require special attention and approaches. To successfully carry out and implement conservation, it is extremely important to elaborate a proper method. This issue becomes even more topical when we have to deal with construction materials to be treated with chemical reagents.
The major part of archaeological and architectural monuments existing in Georgia is built of stone. Therefore, it is important to concentrate our attention on conservation of construction and facing stones, especially on chemical conservation.
Chemical conservation is an operation, which implies treatment of damaged surfaces with special chemical substances; it is applied when original construction material is so weathered that it may lead to complete destruction. Special laboratory studies are required to study the process of destruction of stone and its chemical conservation. The task can be resolved through scientific researches only.
The process of conservation of a monument of cultural heritage starts with its planning. It is widely known that improperly planned and applied conservation may lead to even more serious destruction then it was before the conservation started.
Before starting works directly on the monument site, the monument needs all-round studies and diagnostics, photo- and graphic fixing. As a rule, in the update, international practice of restoration any team selected for restoration works should include an architect-restorer, civil engineer, arts historian, seismologist, geologist, chemist, biologist and specialist of construction materials. When selecting specific substances (solutions) for conservation, it is required to define climatic and physical conditions, under which the monument currently exists, and the function of the monument upon completion of conservation.
Conservation of buildings and architectural details of stone is carried through following the strictly defined methodological sequence. The method and sequence are elaborated, repeatedly tested and introduced into practice by international organizations dealing with restoration. The above-mentioned works imply steps as follows:
1. Petrographic - mineralogical analysis of stone.
2. Analysis of original mortar and plaster.
3. Diagnosis of stone or stone corrosion analysis. To correctly diagnose a case, it is necessary to study the reasons of damage.
4. Analysis of later interference; studies to state whether the monument was subjected to chemical treatment earlier; and, if it is the case, what type of chemicals have been applied; is it possible to remove the mixture or not; and, if possible, what are the means to do so.
5. Laboratory testing of stone samples. These tests enable to state the indexes as: porosity of stone, water-absorbability, salt-resistance, capillary absorption, material contraction, air-and steam-conductivity, compression steadiness, saturation coefficient etc. First, a corroded stone is tested, then a sound stone and in the end samples of damaged stone, having saturated them with conservation solutions first.
6. Cleaning of monument surface removing mechanical dirt and herbs.
7. Start of conservation of the existing condition of the monument. All the conservation matters should be selected and tested by then. Technological methods differ; their choice depends on the size of the object to be treated, relief of the surface, easiness of access for a restorer etc. Besides, it is important to provide a lasting contiguity for a surface subjected to treatment and a solution selected for conservation. For this purpose, methods are as follows: complete or partial sinking into a bath, multifold sprinkling by a special pulverizer, soaking with chemical solutions applying compresses and applications, pouring solution on top of an object, injections, pumping, entering matters using brushes etc.
8. Works to replace stones and restoration of broken or missing fragments with conservation mass (so called, artificial stone).
9. Final treatment of surface - hydrophobization, i.e. surface treatment with solutions protecting from water (note: conservation matters frequently contain hydrophobizators). And, surface treatment against bio-damages preventing reproduction of mosses and other herbs.
Archaeological monuments represented by stone material require exactly the same method of conservation. It is reasonable to carry out conservation of stone material immediately upon excavation as to protect them from solar and atmospheric impact, preventing impending danger of their destruction. An alternative method is to cover them with soil again.
Making use of international standards Georgian restorer-technologists have studied and diagnosed stone samples (some of them have been chemically treated) of the monuments as, Jvari in Mtskheta, complexes Uplistsikhe, Vardzia, David Gareji, Atskouri cathedral, Bolnissi Sioni, Tsromi, ancient settlement Vani and etc.
The article was written in 1986.
On the base of ethylsilikate, polymethylsiloxane and oligoetoxiclhorsiloxane have been gotten and... more On the base of ethylsilikate, polymethylsiloxane and oligoetoxiclhorsiloxane have been gotten and studied the compositions, which can be used in the stone and stone buildings conservation. Compositions with the different mixtures of components have been studied on the time of solidifiabillity during this work. The optimal composition, which successfully can be used by restorers, consists: Ethylsilikate – 94.5%, Polymethilsiloxane – 4%, Oligoethoxichlorsiloxane – 0.5%. The standard samples of the stones have been treated with above-mentioned composition to study their resistance on the next qualitative characteristics: salt resistance, water absorption, capillary rise of water, freezing resistance and contracting of stone.
Have been ascertained, that the stone samples treated with this composition are strength and have good physical-chemical and the physical-mechanical characteristics.
saqpatenti saavtoro ufleba #-9192/01, 15.02.2006
Has been studied the co-polymerization of 1,3-bis(3-trimethylsililoxipropyl)tetramethyldisiloxan ... more Has been studied the co-polymerization of 1,3-bis(3-trimethylsililoxipropyl)tetramethyldisiloxan with octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane with the presence of nucleophilic catalyst – siloxsanolate-tetramethylammonium. Has been shown that the compositions gotten on the base of synthesized oligoorganosiloxanes and the compounds with high level of viscosity are more elastic and flexible and have more time of exploitation.
Modified siloxane-rubbers can be used in the restoration works and for making of copies of museum artifacts as well.
The article describes the approaches and tools used for management of the archaeological resource... more The article describes the approaches and tools used for management of the archaeological resources during Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) oil pipeline construction. BP constructed BTC with the total length of 1,760 km, from which 249 km-long portion lies within Georgia. The project was connected with large physical interventions, also contained certain risks for archaeological, historic monument sites and environment. As part of its social and environmental obligations, BTC undertook to research, protect and promote important cultural heritage sites along the pipeline route. Implementation of the BTC Project Heritage Protection Programme that was developed in close collaboration with the Georgian heritage institutions resulted in full-scale archaeological excavations of the archaeological sites identified along the pipeline route that could not be avoided. Archaeological excavations conducted by the Centre of Archaeology in this project have provided useful information on the history and heritage of Georgia. All findings have been recorded, analyzed, studied and reported according to the best international standards. Since pipeline and facility construction began in Georgia, 172 potential archaeological sites have been identified either within or adjacent to various locations to be impacted by the pipeline project.
Conference Presentations by Nino Erkomaishvili
At the 7th International Conference on Science and Technology in Archaeology and Conservation and... more At the 7th International Conference on Science and Technology in Archaeology and Conservation and the Workshop on Documentation and Conservation of Stone deterioration in Heritage Places”, Jordan (2010) Nino Erkomaishvili presented the results of the stone diagnostic studies of the Jvari church (Georgia). Over the centuries, the building suffered damage from environmental erosion and incorrect maintenance. Jvari Church was listed by the World Monuments Fund as one of the 100 most Endangered Sites in the world in 2004. In 2005 the site underwent examination of ICCROM experts. Stone diagnostic work carried out jointly with Georgian experts at the Jvari Church had significant outcome. The laboratory investigations carried out on the stone sample ripped off the church’s wall surface. During these studies, we determined the types of building materials and the physical and mechanical characteristics of the weathered stone samples as well as of the similar stone samples taken from the nearest quarry. Performed investigations include: petrography studies, solidness, porosity, absorption and moistening-drying cycles. Comparison of the stone samples taken from the church wall and quarry shows that every sample of the monument’s stone is considerably changed for worse – significantly reduced the solidness and compactness and increased the porosity and ability of water and air absorption.
“Sharing Conservation Decisions”, International Conference organized by ICCROM, Italy, 2006. Nino... more “Sharing Conservation Decisions”, International Conference organized by ICCROM, Italy, 2006. Nino Erkomaishvili presented the paper describing the conservation project of a Medieval church is Georgia that was initiated by the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline construction project management. The paper highlight the approaches how the decision was made and what were the benefits after the conservation project completes.
At the International seminar promoted by the Romualdo Del Bianco Foundation (Florence, Italy): " ... more At the International seminar promoted by the Romualdo Del Bianco Foundation (Florence, Italy): " The historical architectural heritage in the new social political situation " (2007) Nino Erkomaishvili presented a paper about mitigation of the potential and real risks to the architectural heritage which can exist during the mega-construction projects such as the oil and gas pipelines construction. Proper management that considers assessment and analyzing of potential risks and developing the proper mitigation measures can significantly reduce impact on heritage .
Books by Nino Erkomaishvili
RESCUE ARCHAEOLOGY IN GEORGIA - SCPX Project, 2018
gadarCeniTi arqeologia saqarTveloSi samxreT kavkasiis gazsadenis gafarToebis proeqti saqarTvelos ... more gadarCeniTi arqeologia saqarTveloSi samxreT kavkasiis gazsadenis gafarToebis proeqti saqarTvelos erovnuli muzeumi G e o r g i a n N a t i o n a l M u s e u m
Illustrated Glossary on Stone Deterioration Patterns ქვის დაზიანების ილუსტრირებული განმარტებითი ლექსიკონი
The book represents a bi-lingual (English-Georgian) illustrated glossary. The glossary constitute... more The book represents a bi-lingual (English-Georgian) illustrated glossary. The glossary constitutes an important tool for scientific discussions on decay phenomena and processes. It is also an excellent basis for tutorials on stone deterioration. It is based on the careful examination of pre-existing glossaries of English terms.
Well-illustrated book contains 239 pages.
The tree-lingual (Azerbaijani – Georgian – English) bo... more Well-illustrated book contains 239 pages.
The tree-lingual (Azerbaijani – Georgian – English) book highlights the rich cultural heritage of three countries – Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey and presents findings of a collaborative research initiative among archaeologists in Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey and their colleagues from the Smithsonian Institution.
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Papers by Nino Erkomaishvili
Interesting materials have been found during archeological excavations in the southeast Georgia at the middle section of the river Kura (Mtkvari). The most important ancient settlements among them are the following: Arukhlos gora, Shulaveris gora, Khramis didi gora (gora means hill).
Household complexes consist of dwelling and outbuildings.
The main construction material is earth – alluvial, fine-grained, bright gray and yellowish color extracted locally. Adobe was made of well-washed clay with fine-grained sand and chopped chaff for degreasing. Adobe was made with simple wooden tools. The adobes have flat-convex shape – bottom and sides flat and surface – convex. They have no strict geometrical shapes. The main dimensions are as follows: 30 X 20 X 8cm, 30 X 15 X 8cm and 25 X 15 X 7cm. Though, sometimes the adobes are found with 45 and 45cm length and 20 – 25cm width.
Wall is built horizontally with the width of one adobe. The distance between the adobes is 2-3cm. The walls have no foundation and are erected directly from the ground or preliminarily leveled and well-compacted old buildings. Well-washed clay is used as a mortar, which filled the empty spaces between the adobes and the convex parts. This substance becomes very strong after drying. Such straight layer was good foundation for the next layer. Each next layer is narrower than the previous one and is directed inwards to the center forming the rounded roof. Shape of the dwelling building was rounded as well.
The walls are plastered on both sides with a quite strong clay (earth) mortar. Width of the walls is 20-25cm.
Strength of the building was achieved through the well-compacted earth cushion around the foundation. No signs of the wooden poles or other supporting buildings have been found.
Another interesting archeological monument named “Berikldeebi”was found in the east Georgia. This is a temple and fence system, newly introduced in 4 millennium BC. It is a first time that the “Temple culture” appears in this period. Survived fragment of the fence with the length 80m and a temple. The fence has no good foundation, height 1m. It is built with the yellowish strong adobe. Sizes of the adobe are as follows: 44 X 20 X 8cm and sometimes 48 X 25 X 8cm. In the lowest structure the adobe is narrower - 44 X 15 X 8cm. They are laid on the strong gray earth mortar. Width of the mortar in the horizontal and vertical joints is 5-8cm. Survived sections of the fence are quite strong and monolithic and it is very difficult to separate the adobes. These adobes are so called dried adobe that are made of the raw materials, which become stronger with time after gradually drying, unlike the adobes preliminarily dried in the sun. Width of the fence is 2m with 7 adobes.
The temple is built with adobe of the same type and size as in the fence. Here the adobe like in the fence is made of the raw material. Inside and from outside the walls are plastered with well-washed light color earth with the mixture of chaff.
The next period is well developed Kura (Mtkvari)-Araksi culture (IV-III millenniums) presented by the following archeological monuments: Amiranis-gora, Samshvilde, Kvatskhelebi, etc. These archeological monuments have been found in the South and East Georgia.
Evidently architecture of this period is developed. The main type of the buildings have square, rounded angles with the beaten cob floor and flat beaten cob roof, though round houses are still found.
Earth and Adobe is mainly used as construction material. Composition of the adobe is mainly the same, on some occasions are found mixtures of fine obsidian or quartz. Dimensions of the adobe is 36 X 18 X 9cm. The building is supported by the wooden structure. The walls are strictly vertical. Building framework is consisted of the wattling. Wooden poles are used for roofing. In some places of the wall are also found stones. In the rounded angles of some buildings are inserted radial adobes of the special shape. Geometrical shape of the adobes is more perfect than that in the earlier period.
In the following periods, adobe buildings are not found in the archeological ancient settlements., the buildings consist mainly of stone or wattle and earth is used only for plastering.
Archeological adobe is found again in the antic period (V-III centuries BC). In the east Georgia are found two antic settlements: Samadlo and Tsikhia-gora. The buildings are built mostly of stone but all fences are built with adobes on the stone socle. At some places, adobe layer is 1.5m high or higher, however, sometimes are found the buildings built with adobe with the beaten cob floor on the stone banking. Adobe consists of earth, coarse-grained sand and chaff. Geometrical shapes are precise, the adobes are square shape, dimensions: 50 X 50 X 11cm or 50 X 22 X 11cm. Inside and outside the buildings are plastered with earth.
Chronologically the next archeological monument is found in the Hellenistic period. This is Mtskheta acropolis, II-I centuries BC, in the east Georgia near Mtskheta. This is Georgian King's quarters. The acropolis comprises 30 hectares. It is surrounded with strong protection walls, strengthened with towers and buttresses. The fence consists of the stone quadras inserted in the holes made in the rocky soil. Adobe wall is built on the stone quadras. Size of the adobes is as follows: 52 X 52 X 12cm. Wooden poles are inserted along and sidewise of the adobe wall. Height of the walls varies between 2.8 and 3.20m. Estimated height presumably was 6-8m. In the summer of last year were performed the following conservative works: stones did not need any conservation. Adobe layer is completely covered with the modern adobes of the same type. For seeing the adobe of the antic period are inserted small windows.
Adobe of the same type are found in the same region (adobe walls of the above sizes on the massive stone quadras) in the other landmarks: Samtavro, Sarkineti, Urbnisi.
Very interesting monument was found in the nearby region as well, this is Dedoplis mindori (Queens Field). This is a grand system of the temple buildings with 6 hectare aria of rectangle shape. The walls of all buildings are built with the standard size adobe (50X50X12cm and 50X25X12cm), on the stone banking. Width of the walls is mainly 1.10m, plastered with strong earth on both sides. The floors are bitten cob. The buildings are supported by the wooden framework. The wooden poles had no bases and were inserted in the floor. Most of the poles were crowned with capitals with fine ornaments. Many parallels of the fine ornament can be found in the Achemenidical, Parthian and Sasanian art monuments. This complex was destroyed by fire. In 1976 part of the adobe wall was conserved with an organic glass.
The conservation was not completely successful. The adobe consolidated well but changed color (darkened). This fragment of the wall was damaged by chance by the local residents. Besides, several adobes were treated with plexiglass dissolved in dichloroethane in the other laboratory. The results were good, adobe consolidated well, did not change color but due to the political and economical crises in Georgia at that time we failed to apply this method directly on the monument.
All the above landmarks are situated in the east Georgia. As for the west Georgia, here adobe is found in the settlement of the Hellenistic period, IV-III centuries BC. This is Vani settlement. According to some considerations, this is the temple –city complex.
Adobe here is found in the religious buildings of the II-I centuries BC. Foundation of the walls is made of two or three layers of right-angled cut stones. The cut stones are connected to each without mortar. On the top is survived walls built with the adobe with a chaff mixture in them. Sizes of the adobe are as follows: 52 X 52 X 12 and 52 X 26 X 11cm. Temple architecture and religious implements found there show that it was designed for sacrifice to the Zoroastrian gods.
Samples of the adobes were conserved with the chemical substance – diizocianit as an experiment. This method was developed in Samarkand by scientists of Uzbekistan Archeological Institute A. Abdurazakov and M. Reutova. At present the samples are in Vani Archeological Museum. Their state is satisfactory but the monument itself was not treated with this substance due to its high toxicity.
Though this method was applied in 80-th of the XX-th century for conservation of the fence of the ancient settlement Afrasiab belonging to XI-IV century BC and landmarks Ak-tepa and Shash-tepa in Tashkent, state of these landmarks is unknown to me.
As an experiment, we tested small fragments of adobe with Polybutilmetakrilat. They became fragile. So the result was not interesting.
This is all the experts of my country and I myself know about the adobe conservation methods.
Taking into consideration all the above it is clear that attention should be drawn to adobe conservation, first due to the existence of the important landmarks and second, because of peculiar climate of Georgia (Snow, frost in winter and rain, drought in summer). Unfortunately, this problem is not solved successfully in Georgia, because the listed chemicals are expensive and area of the buildings to be conserved is large. Therefore, it is important to find cheap and effective means for conservation.
The major part of archaeological and architectural monuments existing in Georgia is built of stone. Therefore, it is important to concentrate our attention on conservation of construction and facing stones, especially on chemical conservation.
Chemical conservation is an operation, which implies treatment of damaged surfaces with special chemical substances; it is applied when original construction material is so weathered that it may lead to complete destruction. Special laboratory studies are required to study the process of destruction of stone and its chemical conservation. The task can be resolved through scientific researches only.
The process of conservation of a monument of cultural heritage starts with its planning. It is widely known that improperly planned and applied conservation may lead to even more serious destruction then it was before the conservation started.
Before starting works directly on the monument site, the monument needs all-round studies and diagnostics, photo- and graphic fixing. As a rule, in the update, international practice of restoration any team selected for restoration works should include an architect-restorer, civil engineer, arts historian, seismologist, geologist, chemist, biologist and specialist of construction materials. When selecting specific substances (solutions) for conservation, it is required to define climatic and physical conditions, under which the monument currently exists, and the function of the monument upon completion of conservation.
Conservation of buildings and architectural details of stone is carried through following the strictly defined methodological sequence. The method and sequence are elaborated, repeatedly tested and introduced into practice by international organizations dealing with restoration. The above-mentioned works imply steps as follows:
1. Petrographic - mineralogical analysis of stone.
2. Analysis of original mortar and plaster.
3. Diagnosis of stone or stone corrosion analysis. To correctly diagnose a case, it is necessary to study the reasons of damage.
4. Analysis of later interference; studies to state whether the monument was subjected to chemical treatment earlier; and, if it is the case, what type of chemicals have been applied; is it possible to remove the mixture or not; and, if possible, what are the means to do so.
5. Laboratory testing of stone samples. These tests enable to state the indexes as: porosity of stone, water-absorbability, salt-resistance, capillary absorption, material contraction, air-and steam-conductivity, compression steadiness, saturation coefficient etc. First, a corroded stone is tested, then a sound stone and in the end samples of damaged stone, having saturated them with conservation solutions first.
6. Cleaning of monument surface removing mechanical dirt and herbs.
7. Start of conservation of the existing condition of the monument. All the conservation matters should be selected and tested by then. Technological methods differ; their choice depends on the size of the object to be treated, relief of the surface, easiness of access for a restorer etc. Besides, it is important to provide a lasting contiguity for a surface subjected to treatment and a solution selected for conservation. For this purpose, methods are as follows: complete or partial sinking into a bath, multifold sprinkling by a special pulverizer, soaking with chemical solutions applying compresses and applications, pouring solution on top of an object, injections, pumping, entering matters using brushes etc.
8. Works to replace stones and restoration of broken or missing fragments with conservation mass (so called, artificial stone).
9. Final treatment of surface - hydrophobization, i.e. surface treatment with solutions protecting from water (note: conservation matters frequently contain hydrophobizators). And, surface treatment against bio-damages preventing reproduction of mosses and other herbs.
Archaeological monuments represented by stone material require exactly the same method of conservation. It is reasonable to carry out conservation of stone material immediately upon excavation as to protect them from solar and atmospheric impact, preventing impending danger of their destruction. An alternative method is to cover them with soil again.
Making use of international standards Georgian restorer-technologists have studied and diagnosed stone samples (some of them have been chemically treated) of the monuments as, Jvari in Mtskheta, complexes Uplistsikhe, Vardzia, David Gareji, Atskouri cathedral, Bolnissi Sioni, Tsromi, ancient settlement Vani and etc.
Have been ascertained, that the stone samples treated with this composition are strength and have good physical-chemical and the physical-mechanical characteristics.
Modified siloxane-rubbers can be used in the restoration works and for making of copies of museum artifacts as well.
Conference Presentations by Nino Erkomaishvili
Books by Nino Erkomaishvili
The tree-lingual (Azerbaijani – Georgian – English) book highlights the rich cultural heritage of three countries – Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey and presents findings of a collaborative research initiative among archaeologists in Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey and their colleagues from the Smithsonian Institution.
Interesting materials have been found during archeological excavations in the southeast Georgia at the middle section of the river Kura (Mtkvari). The most important ancient settlements among them are the following: Arukhlos gora, Shulaveris gora, Khramis didi gora (gora means hill).
Household complexes consist of dwelling and outbuildings.
The main construction material is earth – alluvial, fine-grained, bright gray and yellowish color extracted locally. Adobe was made of well-washed clay with fine-grained sand and chopped chaff for degreasing. Adobe was made with simple wooden tools. The adobes have flat-convex shape – bottom and sides flat and surface – convex. They have no strict geometrical shapes. The main dimensions are as follows: 30 X 20 X 8cm, 30 X 15 X 8cm and 25 X 15 X 7cm. Though, sometimes the adobes are found with 45 and 45cm length and 20 – 25cm width.
Wall is built horizontally with the width of one adobe. The distance between the adobes is 2-3cm. The walls have no foundation and are erected directly from the ground or preliminarily leveled and well-compacted old buildings. Well-washed clay is used as a mortar, which filled the empty spaces between the adobes and the convex parts. This substance becomes very strong after drying. Such straight layer was good foundation for the next layer. Each next layer is narrower than the previous one and is directed inwards to the center forming the rounded roof. Shape of the dwelling building was rounded as well.
The walls are plastered on both sides with a quite strong clay (earth) mortar. Width of the walls is 20-25cm.
Strength of the building was achieved through the well-compacted earth cushion around the foundation. No signs of the wooden poles or other supporting buildings have been found.
Another interesting archeological monument named “Berikldeebi”was found in the east Georgia. This is a temple and fence system, newly introduced in 4 millennium BC. It is a first time that the “Temple culture” appears in this period. Survived fragment of the fence with the length 80m and a temple. The fence has no good foundation, height 1m. It is built with the yellowish strong adobe. Sizes of the adobe are as follows: 44 X 20 X 8cm and sometimes 48 X 25 X 8cm. In the lowest structure the adobe is narrower - 44 X 15 X 8cm. They are laid on the strong gray earth mortar. Width of the mortar in the horizontal and vertical joints is 5-8cm. Survived sections of the fence are quite strong and monolithic and it is very difficult to separate the adobes. These adobes are so called dried adobe that are made of the raw materials, which become stronger with time after gradually drying, unlike the adobes preliminarily dried in the sun. Width of the fence is 2m with 7 adobes.
The temple is built with adobe of the same type and size as in the fence. Here the adobe like in the fence is made of the raw material. Inside and from outside the walls are plastered with well-washed light color earth with the mixture of chaff.
The next period is well developed Kura (Mtkvari)-Araksi culture (IV-III millenniums) presented by the following archeological monuments: Amiranis-gora, Samshvilde, Kvatskhelebi, etc. These archeological monuments have been found in the South and East Georgia.
Evidently architecture of this period is developed. The main type of the buildings have square, rounded angles with the beaten cob floor and flat beaten cob roof, though round houses are still found.
Earth and Adobe is mainly used as construction material. Composition of the adobe is mainly the same, on some occasions are found mixtures of fine obsidian or quartz. Dimensions of the adobe is 36 X 18 X 9cm. The building is supported by the wooden structure. The walls are strictly vertical. Building framework is consisted of the wattling. Wooden poles are used for roofing. In some places of the wall are also found stones. In the rounded angles of some buildings are inserted radial adobes of the special shape. Geometrical shape of the adobes is more perfect than that in the earlier period.
In the following periods, adobe buildings are not found in the archeological ancient settlements., the buildings consist mainly of stone or wattle and earth is used only for plastering.
Archeological adobe is found again in the antic period (V-III centuries BC). In the east Georgia are found two antic settlements: Samadlo and Tsikhia-gora. The buildings are built mostly of stone but all fences are built with adobes on the stone socle. At some places, adobe layer is 1.5m high or higher, however, sometimes are found the buildings built with adobe with the beaten cob floor on the stone banking. Adobe consists of earth, coarse-grained sand and chaff. Geometrical shapes are precise, the adobes are square shape, dimensions: 50 X 50 X 11cm or 50 X 22 X 11cm. Inside and outside the buildings are plastered with earth.
Chronologically the next archeological monument is found in the Hellenistic period. This is Mtskheta acropolis, II-I centuries BC, in the east Georgia near Mtskheta. This is Georgian King's quarters. The acropolis comprises 30 hectares. It is surrounded with strong protection walls, strengthened with towers and buttresses. The fence consists of the stone quadras inserted in the holes made in the rocky soil. Adobe wall is built on the stone quadras. Size of the adobes is as follows: 52 X 52 X 12cm. Wooden poles are inserted along and sidewise of the adobe wall. Height of the walls varies between 2.8 and 3.20m. Estimated height presumably was 6-8m. In the summer of last year were performed the following conservative works: stones did not need any conservation. Adobe layer is completely covered with the modern adobes of the same type. For seeing the adobe of the antic period are inserted small windows.
Adobe of the same type are found in the same region (adobe walls of the above sizes on the massive stone quadras) in the other landmarks: Samtavro, Sarkineti, Urbnisi.
Very interesting monument was found in the nearby region as well, this is Dedoplis mindori (Queens Field). This is a grand system of the temple buildings with 6 hectare aria of rectangle shape. The walls of all buildings are built with the standard size adobe (50X50X12cm and 50X25X12cm), on the stone banking. Width of the walls is mainly 1.10m, plastered with strong earth on both sides. The floors are bitten cob. The buildings are supported by the wooden framework. The wooden poles had no bases and were inserted in the floor. Most of the poles were crowned with capitals with fine ornaments. Many parallels of the fine ornament can be found in the Achemenidical, Parthian and Sasanian art monuments. This complex was destroyed by fire. In 1976 part of the adobe wall was conserved with an organic glass.
The conservation was not completely successful. The adobe consolidated well but changed color (darkened). This fragment of the wall was damaged by chance by the local residents. Besides, several adobes were treated with plexiglass dissolved in dichloroethane in the other laboratory. The results were good, adobe consolidated well, did not change color but due to the political and economical crises in Georgia at that time we failed to apply this method directly on the monument.
All the above landmarks are situated in the east Georgia. As for the west Georgia, here adobe is found in the settlement of the Hellenistic period, IV-III centuries BC. This is Vani settlement. According to some considerations, this is the temple –city complex.
Adobe here is found in the religious buildings of the II-I centuries BC. Foundation of the walls is made of two or three layers of right-angled cut stones. The cut stones are connected to each without mortar. On the top is survived walls built with the adobe with a chaff mixture in them. Sizes of the adobe are as follows: 52 X 52 X 12 and 52 X 26 X 11cm. Temple architecture and religious implements found there show that it was designed for sacrifice to the Zoroastrian gods.
Samples of the adobes were conserved with the chemical substance – diizocianit as an experiment. This method was developed in Samarkand by scientists of Uzbekistan Archeological Institute A. Abdurazakov and M. Reutova. At present the samples are in Vani Archeological Museum. Their state is satisfactory but the monument itself was not treated with this substance due to its high toxicity.
Though this method was applied in 80-th of the XX-th century for conservation of the fence of the ancient settlement Afrasiab belonging to XI-IV century BC and landmarks Ak-tepa and Shash-tepa in Tashkent, state of these landmarks is unknown to me.
As an experiment, we tested small fragments of adobe with Polybutilmetakrilat. They became fragile. So the result was not interesting.
This is all the experts of my country and I myself know about the adobe conservation methods.
Taking into consideration all the above it is clear that attention should be drawn to adobe conservation, first due to the existence of the important landmarks and second, because of peculiar climate of Georgia (Snow, frost in winter and rain, drought in summer). Unfortunately, this problem is not solved successfully in Georgia, because the listed chemicals are expensive and area of the buildings to be conserved is large. Therefore, it is important to find cheap and effective means for conservation.
The major part of archaeological and architectural monuments existing in Georgia is built of stone. Therefore, it is important to concentrate our attention on conservation of construction and facing stones, especially on chemical conservation.
Chemical conservation is an operation, which implies treatment of damaged surfaces with special chemical substances; it is applied when original construction material is so weathered that it may lead to complete destruction. Special laboratory studies are required to study the process of destruction of stone and its chemical conservation. The task can be resolved through scientific researches only.
The process of conservation of a monument of cultural heritage starts with its planning. It is widely known that improperly planned and applied conservation may lead to even more serious destruction then it was before the conservation started.
Before starting works directly on the monument site, the monument needs all-round studies and diagnostics, photo- and graphic fixing. As a rule, in the update, international practice of restoration any team selected for restoration works should include an architect-restorer, civil engineer, arts historian, seismologist, geologist, chemist, biologist and specialist of construction materials. When selecting specific substances (solutions) for conservation, it is required to define climatic and physical conditions, under which the monument currently exists, and the function of the monument upon completion of conservation.
Conservation of buildings and architectural details of stone is carried through following the strictly defined methodological sequence. The method and sequence are elaborated, repeatedly tested and introduced into practice by international organizations dealing with restoration. The above-mentioned works imply steps as follows:
1. Petrographic - mineralogical analysis of stone.
2. Analysis of original mortar and plaster.
3. Diagnosis of stone or stone corrosion analysis. To correctly diagnose a case, it is necessary to study the reasons of damage.
4. Analysis of later interference; studies to state whether the monument was subjected to chemical treatment earlier; and, if it is the case, what type of chemicals have been applied; is it possible to remove the mixture or not; and, if possible, what are the means to do so.
5. Laboratory testing of stone samples. These tests enable to state the indexes as: porosity of stone, water-absorbability, salt-resistance, capillary absorption, material contraction, air-and steam-conductivity, compression steadiness, saturation coefficient etc. First, a corroded stone is tested, then a sound stone and in the end samples of damaged stone, having saturated them with conservation solutions first.
6. Cleaning of monument surface removing mechanical dirt and herbs.
7. Start of conservation of the existing condition of the monument. All the conservation matters should be selected and tested by then. Technological methods differ; their choice depends on the size of the object to be treated, relief of the surface, easiness of access for a restorer etc. Besides, it is important to provide a lasting contiguity for a surface subjected to treatment and a solution selected for conservation. For this purpose, methods are as follows: complete or partial sinking into a bath, multifold sprinkling by a special pulverizer, soaking with chemical solutions applying compresses and applications, pouring solution on top of an object, injections, pumping, entering matters using brushes etc.
8. Works to replace stones and restoration of broken or missing fragments with conservation mass (so called, artificial stone).
9. Final treatment of surface - hydrophobization, i.e. surface treatment with solutions protecting from water (note: conservation matters frequently contain hydrophobizators). And, surface treatment against bio-damages preventing reproduction of mosses and other herbs.
Archaeological monuments represented by stone material require exactly the same method of conservation. It is reasonable to carry out conservation of stone material immediately upon excavation as to protect them from solar and atmospheric impact, preventing impending danger of their destruction. An alternative method is to cover them with soil again.
Making use of international standards Georgian restorer-technologists have studied and diagnosed stone samples (some of them have been chemically treated) of the monuments as, Jvari in Mtskheta, complexes Uplistsikhe, Vardzia, David Gareji, Atskouri cathedral, Bolnissi Sioni, Tsromi, ancient settlement Vani and etc.
Have been ascertained, that the stone samples treated with this composition are strength and have good physical-chemical and the physical-mechanical characteristics.
Modified siloxane-rubbers can be used in the restoration works and for making of copies of museum artifacts as well.
The tree-lingual (Azerbaijani – Georgian – English) book highlights the rich cultural heritage of three countries – Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey and presents findings of a collaborative research initiative among archaeologists in Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey and their colleagues from the Smithsonian Institution.
The bilingual (Georgian-English) book includes twenty three scientific articles resulting from the Rescue Archaeology Programme funded by BP and its partners as part of the Company’s efforts to protect the cultural resources discovered during the construction of the BTC and SCP pipelines in Georgia. These activities took place in 2000-2005 and were carried out by the Otar Lordkipanidze Archaeological Research Centre of the Georgian National Museum.