For the past decades, the number of research on Non Point Source (NPS) pollution has increased du... more For the past decades, the number of research on Non Point Source (NPS) pollution has increased due to its nature being the major source of pollution to water degradation around the world. The study of NPS in Malaysia is scarce especially in agricultural areas. This research aims to provide quality and quantity of runoff pollutant loadings from an agricultural farm at a plot scale. Two plots were constructed at different land use (fruit orchard and vegetable farm). Tipping bucket flow gauges were installed at the end of each slope to measure runoff volume and collect water sample. The water samples were collected over a period of three months, immediately following rainfall events. Nine water parameter (Nitrite, Nitrate, Ammonia, Total Nitrogen, Phosphate, Total Phosphorus, Chemical Oxygen Demand, Total Suspended Solid, pH) analyses were conducted by using the DR5000 UV-Spectrometer. Result indicated that Total Suspended Solid (TSS) from fruit orchard is much higher while the nutrien...
The determination of soil hydraulic properties is of paramount importance as they are needed in m... more The determination of soil hydraulic properties is of paramount importance as they are needed in many models of water and solute transport in soils, however conventional methods are quite difficult, expensive and sometimes cumbersome to use. Most studies of soil water retention functions are for temperate soils and their soil water retention curve (SWRC) cannot be extrapolated to tropical region, as such this study focused solemnly on SWRC of soils of tropical region (Malaysia and Indonesia to be specific). The analytical models of Brooks & Corey, van Genuchten and Kosugi were applied to model the SWRC for humid tropical soils, parameters of the three models were optimised by fitting them to 191 soil samples, of 10 different classes (International society of soil science classification) using VBA & MS excel solver add in. A comparison of the fitting capabilities and model quality was made using the sum of square of errors (SSQE) between observed and modelled values and, Akaike inform...
The estimation of crop evapotranspiration (ET c) uses reference evapotranspiration (ET 0) as a ke... more The estimation of crop evapotranspiration (ET c) uses reference evapotranspiration (ET 0) as a key variable. Physically based FAO-56 Penman-Monteith method provides accurate ET 0 estimates; however, various methods are still used in different climatic regions worldwide, either due to simplicity of the methods or due to insufficiency of data required for Penman-Monteith method. The present study is conducted at sub-humid subtropical locations of western Himalayan agroclimate in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh. Performance of 12 ET 0 methods, representing combination type, pan evaporation, radiation and temperature based, is compared with Penman-Monteith method. Different ET 0 methods are ranked on the basis of quantitative comparison performed on mean daily ET 0 obtained for a period of 6 years. The temperature-based methods performed better than radiation and pan evaporation-based methods. Linear regression equations are developed between Penman-Monteith ET 0 (dependent variable) and ET 0 estimates from alternate method (independent variable). Relative significance of meteorological factors essential for accurate ET 0 estimation in the climate considered is investigated using sensitivity analysis. Solar radiation is identified as the most sensitive parameter for ET 0 estimation in the climate of the study area, followed by maximum temperature and relative humidity.
This paper presents the application of linear and non-linear time series modeling approaches for ... more This paper presents the application of linear and non-linear time series modeling approaches for simulating and forecasting streamflow at three stations located in three different rivers namely Kurau River, Ara River and Krian River of Bukit Merah watershed of Malaysia. The performance of linear autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model and non-linear artificial neural networks (ANN) model in forecasting the monthly streamflow of Malaysian river basins has been evaluated based on mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), root mean squared error (RMSE) and coefficient of determination (R2). The results show that both ARIMA and ANN methods are suitable for streamflow forecasting. However, ANN is better than ARIMA in dealing with short-memory streamflow data. In addition, ANN method is more flexible to use against the inconsistent data.Keywords: time series, streamflow forecasting, ARIMA, ANN, Bukit Merah
IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 2021
The present study is part of the development of an environment-friendly water management system b... more The present study is part of the development of an environment-friendly water management system based on sub surface drainage technology. It is aimed at creating a multipurpose farmland with expectation of increase in both benefits and productivity. Sub-surface drainage pipes which are installed inside mole-drain, functions as water channel that flows water into the drainage channel. Simulation was run using a 2D numerical soil water flow model based on Richard’s equation. It integrates varying soil textures with aim of figuring the optimum setting of sub-drains in response to soil textures. The depth of sub-drain was established at 40cm beneath the surface for all conditions as it is the current installation available in Indonesia. Our simulation shows the variation of soil moisture and pressure over distance, time and different textures under specified spacing of sub-surface installation.
JOURNAL OF JAPAN SOCIETY OF HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES, 2008
Infiltration is the physical process of water entering the soil from its surface. The amount of w... more Infiltration is the physical process of water entering the soil from its surface. The amount of water that infiltrates into the soil and its variation with time depend upon slope, soil structure, surface roughness, soil texture, surface cover, hydraulic conductivity and surface water content (Leonard and Andrieux, 1998). It plays important role for agricultural planning, environmental research and policy analysis such as development of plant irrigation, fertilizer and soil nutrition movement, surface and subsurface water pollution, and groundwater recharge (Netto et al., 1999; Dingman, 2002). In the tropical region such as Indonesia, soils often receive high precipitation and subject to
The relationship between heavy metal and biomass properties in polymictic lake at Sembrong Lake, ... more The relationship between heavy metal and biomass properties in polymictic lake at Sembrong Lake, Peninsular Malaysia was assessed. Sixteen parameters, including heavy metals and biomass parameters were monitored. pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen and heavy metals level changes significantly influenced by the dynamic of polymictic mixing pattern. The mean concentrations of heavy metals in the reservoir decreased in the following order: Fe > Mn > Zn > Cu > As > Pb. The result showed that this polymictic lake is being threatened by cultural eutrophication with TSI value range from 72.40 to 80.41 and classified as a hypereutrophic lake. The levels of heavy metal pollution in the reservoir range from slightly polluted to polluted. Factor analysis was performed to determine the relationship between heavy metals and biomass parameters. Five factors were responsible for data structure and explained the 83% of total variance. These factors differentiate each group of parameters according to their common characteristics. Photosynthesis, respiration and redox processes were main factors contributing to the variability of both properties.
Sensitivity of the FAO Penman-Monteith (FPM) potential evapotranspiration (PET) model under tropi... more Sensitivity of the FAO Penman-Monteith (FPM) potential evapotranspiration (PET) model under tropical climates has been studied in the present study. A total of 17 meteorological stations covering Peninsular Malaysia starting from 1987-2003 were used as model inputs. A sensitivity analysis (SA) was carried out using the graphical method for temperature, wind speed and solar radiation within the possible range of ±20% with increments of 5%. From the comparison done on the sensitivity of PET to climatic change, the Kuala Krai station gave the highest percentage change in terms of temperature (±6%). The highest percentage change for wind speed (±2%) and solar radiation (±17%) were shown at the Alor Setar and Kuala Krai stations, respectively. The Alor Setar station had the lowest percentage change for temperature (±0.3%) and solar radiation (±9.9). The lowest percentage change of wind speed (± 0.2%) was observed at the Kuala Krai station. PET percentage changes have a positive correlati...
The potential of PALSAR data for soil moisture retrieval over four land use type of tropical area... more The potential of PALSAR data for soil moisture retrieval over four land use type of tropical area in Malaysia was evaluated using backscattering regression model. The catchment is divided into four land use types which are rubber, shrub, oil palm and grass land area. Without having any knowledge on surface roughness, the regression model was inversed and applied to the data. The regression coefficient of the model is analyzed to overall catchment and each type of the land use. The final output showed the calibration between backscattering coefficient and measured soil moisture is R = 0.52. The validation result between derived and measured soil moisture is found to decrease in R = 0.47. However, the division of each land uses are found to give a different result with one to another due to the type of land used based on the observation during the fields. The higher coefficient is found in rubber area and followed by oil palm, grassland and shrub area with R = 0.89, 0.79, 0.38 and 0.1...
The “litter marks” which has the dark color and shape like a circle was found around the oil palm... more The “litter marks” which has the dark color and shape like a circle was found around the oil palm tree base. These litter marks seem to be caused by the infiltration excess overland flow due to higher intensity of stemflow than the infiltration capacity of surface soil. An experiment was conducted to determine relationships between the diameter at the tree base and the radius of litter mark or infiltration area mark from the center of the stem. Result shows that the litter marks around oil palm tree base can be a useful indicator to estimate the infiltration area of stemflow-induced water.
There are some bad impacts from a critical land such as flood in rainy season and dryness in dry ... more There are some bad impacts from a critical land such as flood in rainy season and dryness in dry season. Long dryness could cause shortage of water for human consumption, industry and agriculture. Prevention has been made to avoid the both bad impacts by building hydraulic structures like reservoirs and ponds in order to reduce the peak flow during the rainy season and to store the water for use during the dry season. However, they gradually become full of sediment. This will make them work insufficiently and will cause high maintenance cost. Moreover, wells in agriculture field used as retention also suffer dryness to make crop failure. This study aims to develop a model of pond for conservation of land and water in non irrigated land. Community participation is crucial in order to solve the flood and dryness problems. The community, especially the farmers will participate actively in the implementation and maintenance of the model. There are benefits in using the pond model such a...
Water resources are in great demand today all over the world. Water has become a precious resourc... more Water resources are in great demand today all over the world. Water has become a precious resource on which the well-being and even the survival of future generations critically depends. The resulting problems have given rise to many activities that reflect great concern about the problems and the importance accorded to their sustainable management. Issues relating to water such as quality, quantity, availability, planning and management will have to be seriously tackled now and in the future. Further, issues on water security that involves protection of vulnerable water systems, sustainable development of water resources, safeguarding access to water functions and services, and protection against water related hazards such as floods and droughts. The steadily increasing strain on natural resources in many regions has already led to a precarious balance between the needs of different water users living in river basins and coastal zones. As such, managing water resources for the futu...
A few experiments have been conducted to examine an artificial macropores and their size effects ... more A few experiments have been conducted to examine an artificial macropores and their size effects on water flow and solute transport [1-4]. Allaire-Leung, et al. [ I ] found that water percolation rate with open-open (0-0) macropore was two orders or magnitude higher than those with no macropore. Similarly, Zhou, et al, [2] found that the infiltration rate in the 0-0 macropore was 10-50 times greater than those with no macropore and the other macropore types in their treatment. Biopori has become recently popular approach in reducing surface runoff. However, the effect of its diameter and length on different soil types has not been numerically investigated. The water flow through a loamy soil (2mm sieved and 15% of initial water content) containing an artificial cylindrical macropore having 8 cm in diameter and 9 cm in length was observed through a soil column having 20 cm in diameter and 20 cm in height HYDRUS 2D/3D was employed to simulate the water now of the observed data. Water ...
The relationship between heavy metal and trophic properties in polymictic lake at Sembrong Lake, ... more The relationship between heavy metal and trophic properties in polymictic lake at Sembrong Lake, Peninsular Malaysia was assessed. Sixteen parameters, including heavy metals and trophic parameters were monitored. pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen and heavy metals level changes significantly influenced by the dynamic of polymictic mixing pattern. The mean concentrations of heavy metals in the reservoir decreased in the following order: Fe > Mn > Zn > Cu > As > Pb. The result showed that this polymictic lake is being threatened by cultural eutrophication with TSI value range from 72.40 to 80.41 and classified as a hypereutrophic lake. The levels of heavy metal pollution in the reservoir range from slightly polluted to polluted. Factor analysis was performed to determine the relationship between heavy metals and trophic parameters. Five factors were responsible for data structure and explained the 83% of total variance. These factors differentiate each group of parameter...
Many studies have examined the individual macropores and their size effects on water flow and sol... more Many studies have examined the individual macropores and their size effects on water flow and solute transport. However, the effects of macropore size on reducing surface runoff has not been scientically studied. The present study describes a laboratorium experiment and examine the effects of macropore dimensions and changes in initial soil water content on the cumulative infiltration and the occurrence of first time drainage. The water flow through a loamy soil (2mm sieved and 15% of initial water content) containing an artificial cylindrical macropore having 8 cm in diameter and 9 cm in height was observed through a soil column having 20 cm in diameter and 20 cm in height. HYDRUS 2D/3D was employed to simulate the water flow through the soil at 5 cm. 8 cm. and 10 cm in diameters: and 10 cm. 20 cm and 50 cm in heights of the macropore. Three contrasting initial soil water contents: 15%. 20%. and 25% was applied into the treatment of different sizes of macropore diameters. Overall, ...
For the past decades, the number of research on Non Point Source (NPS) pollution has increased du... more For the past decades, the number of research on Non Point Source (NPS) pollution has increased due to its nature being the major source of pollution to water degradation around the world. The study of NPS in Malaysia is scarce especially in agricultural areas. This research aims to provide quality and quantity of runoff pollutant loadings from an agricultural farm at a plot scale. Two plots were constructed at different land use (fruit orchard and vegetable farm). Tipping bucket flow gauges were installed at the end of each slope to measure runoff volume and collect water sample. The water samples were collected over a period of three months, immediately following rainfall events. Nine water parameter (Nitrite, Nitrate, Ammonia, Total Nitrogen, Phosphate, Total Phosphorus, Chemical Oxygen Demand, Total Suspended Solid, pH) analyses were conducted by using the DR5000 UV-Spectrometer. Result indicated that Total Suspended Solid (TSS) from fruit orchard is much higher while the nutrien...
The determination of soil hydraulic properties is of paramount importance as they are needed in m... more The determination of soil hydraulic properties is of paramount importance as they are needed in many models of water and solute transport in soils, however conventional methods are quite difficult, expensive and sometimes cumbersome to use. Most studies of soil water retention functions are for temperate soils and their soil water retention curve (SWRC) cannot be extrapolated to tropical region, as such this study focused solemnly on SWRC of soils of tropical region (Malaysia and Indonesia to be specific). The analytical models of Brooks & Corey, van Genuchten and Kosugi were applied to model the SWRC for humid tropical soils, parameters of the three models were optimised by fitting them to 191 soil samples, of 10 different classes (International society of soil science classification) using VBA & MS excel solver add in. A comparison of the fitting capabilities and model quality was made using the sum of square of errors (SSQE) between observed and modelled values and, Akaike inform...
The estimation of crop evapotranspiration (ET c) uses reference evapotranspiration (ET 0) as a ke... more The estimation of crop evapotranspiration (ET c) uses reference evapotranspiration (ET 0) as a key variable. Physically based FAO-56 Penman-Monteith method provides accurate ET 0 estimates; however, various methods are still used in different climatic regions worldwide, either due to simplicity of the methods or due to insufficiency of data required for Penman-Monteith method. The present study is conducted at sub-humid subtropical locations of western Himalayan agroclimate in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh. Performance of 12 ET 0 methods, representing combination type, pan evaporation, radiation and temperature based, is compared with Penman-Monteith method. Different ET 0 methods are ranked on the basis of quantitative comparison performed on mean daily ET 0 obtained for a period of 6 years. The temperature-based methods performed better than radiation and pan evaporation-based methods. Linear regression equations are developed between Penman-Monteith ET 0 (dependent variable) and ET 0 estimates from alternate method (independent variable). Relative significance of meteorological factors essential for accurate ET 0 estimation in the climate considered is investigated using sensitivity analysis. Solar radiation is identified as the most sensitive parameter for ET 0 estimation in the climate of the study area, followed by maximum temperature and relative humidity.
This paper presents the application of linear and non-linear time series modeling approaches for ... more This paper presents the application of linear and non-linear time series modeling approaches for simulating and forecasting streamflow at three stations located in three different rivers namely Kurau River, Ara River and Krian River of Bukit Merah watershed of Malaysia. The performance of linear autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model and non-linear artificial neural networks (ANN) model in forecasting the monthly streamflow of Malaysian river basins has been evaluated based on mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), root mean squared error (RMSE) and coefficient of determination (R2). The results show that both ARIMA and ANN methods are suitable for streamflow forecasting. However, ANN is better than ARIMA in dealing with short-memory streamflow data. In addition, ANN method is more flexible to use against the inconsistent data.Keywords: time series, streamflow forecasting, ARIMA, ANN, Bukit Merah
IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 2021
The present study is part of the development of an environment-friendly water management system b... more The present study is part of the development of an environment-friendly water management system based on sub surface drainage technology. It is aimed at creating a multipurpose farmland with expectation of increase in both benefits and productivity. Sub-surface drainage pipes which are installed inside mole-drain, functions as water channel that flows water into the drainage channel. Simulation was run using a 2D numerical soil water flow model based on Richard’s equation. It integrates varying soil textures with aim of figuring the optimum setting of sub-drains in response to soil textures. The depth of sub-drain was established at 40cm beneath the surface for all conditions as it is the current installation available in Indonesia. Our simulation shows the variation of soil moisture and pressure over distance, time and different textures under specified spacing of sub-surface installation.
JOURNAL OF JAPAN SOCIETY OF HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES, 2008
Infiltration is the physical process of water entering the soil from its surface. The amount of w... more Infiltration is the physical process of water entering the soil from its surface. The amount of water that infiltrates into the soil and its variation with time depend upon slope, soil structure, surface roughness, soil texture, surface cover, hydraulic conductivity and surface water content (Leonard and Andrieux, 1998). It plays important role for agricultural planning, environmental research and policy analysis such as development of plant irrigation, fertilizer and soil nutrition movement, surface and subsurface water pollution, and groundwater recharge (Netto et al., 1999; Dingman, 2002). In the tropical region such as Indonesia, soils often receive high precipitation and subject to
The relationship between heavy metal and biomass properties in polymictic lake at Sembrong Lake, ... more The relationship between heavy metal and biomass properties in polymictic lake at Sembrong Lake, Peninsular Malaysia was assessed. Sixteen parameters, including heavy metals and biomass parameters were monitored. pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen and heavy metals level changes significantly influenced by the dynamic of polymictic mixing pattern. The mean concentrations of heavy metals in the reservoir decreased in the following order: Fe > Mn > Zn > Cu > As > Pb. The result showed that this polymictic lake is being threatened by cultural eutrophication with TSI value range from 72.40 to 80.41 and classified as a hypereutrophic lake. The levels of heavy metal pollution in the reservoir range from slightly polluted to polluted. Factor analysis was performed to determine the relationship between heavy metals and biomass parameters. Five factors were responsible for data structure and explained the 83% of total variance. These factors differentiate each group of parameters according to their common characteristics. Photosynthesis, respiration and redox processes were main factors contributing to the variability of both properties.
Sensitivity of the FAO Penman-Monteith (FPM) potential evapotranspiration (PET) model under tropi... more Sensitivity of the FAO Penman-Monteith (FPM) potential evapotranspiration (PET) model under tropical climates has been studied in the present study. A total of 17 meteorological stations covering Peninsular Malaysia starting from 1987-2003 were used as model inputs. A sensitivity analysis (SA) was carried out using the graphical method for temperature, wind speed and solar radiation within the possible range of ±20% with increments of 5%. From the comparison done on the sensitivity of PET to climatic change, the Kuala Krai station gave the highest percentage change in terms of temperature (±6%). The highest percentage change for wind speed (±2%) and solar radiation (±17%) were shown at the Alor Setar and Kuala Krai stations, respectively. The Alor Setar station had the lowest percentage change for temperature (±0.3%) and solar radiation (±9.9). The lowest percentage change of wind speed (± 0.2%) was observed at the Kuala Krai station. PET percentage changes have a positive correlati...
The potential of PALSAR data for soil moisture retrieval over four land use type of tropical area... more The potential of PALSAR data for soil moisture retrieval over four land use type of tropical area in Malaysia was evaluated using backscattering regression model. The catchment is divided into four land use types which are rubber, shrub, oil palm and grass land area. Without having any knowledge on surface roughness, the regression model was inversed and applied to the data. The regression coefficient of the model is analyzed to overall catchment and each type of the land use. The final output showed the calibration between backscattering coefficient and measured soil moisture is R = 0.52. The validation result between derived and measured soil moisture is found to decrease in R = 0.47. However, the division of each land uses are found to give a different result with one to another due to the type of land used based on the observation during the fields. The higher coefficient is found in rubber area and followed by oil palm, grassland and shrub area with R = 0.89, 0.79, 0.38 and 0.1...
The “litter marks” which has the dark color and shape like a circle was found around the oil palm... more The “litter marks” which has the dark color and shape like a circle was found around the oil palm tree base. These litter marks seem to be caused by the infiltration excess overland flow due to higher intensity of stemflow than the infiltration capacity of surface soil. An experiment was conducted to determine relationships between the diameter at the tree base and the radius of litter mark or infiltration area mark from the center of the stem. Result shows that the litter marks around oil palm tree base can be a useful indicator to estimate the infiltration area of stemflow-induced water.
There are some bad impacts from a critical land such as flood in rainy season and dryness in dry ... more There are some bad impacts from a critical land such as flood in rainy season and dryness in dry season. Long dryness could cause shortage of water for human consumption, industry and agriculture. Prevention has been made to avoid the both bad impacts by building hydraulic structures like reservoirs and ponds in order to reduce the peak flow during the rainy season and to store the water for use during the dry season. However, they gradually become full of sediment. This will make them work insufficiently and will cause high maintenance cost. Moreover, wells in agriculture field used as retention also suffer dryness to make crop failure. This study aims to develop a model of pond for conservation of land and water in non irrigated land. Community participation is crucial in order to solve the flood and dryness problems. The community, especially the farmers will participate actively in the implementation and maintenance of the model. There are benefits in using the pond model such a...
Water resources are in great demand today all over the world. Water has become a precious resourc... more Water resources are in great demand today all over the world. Water has become a precious resource on which the well-being and even the survival of future generations critically depends. The resulting problems have given rise to many activities that reflect great concern about the problems and the importance accorded to their sustainable management. Issues relating to water such as quality, quantity, availability, planning and management will have to be seriously tackled now and in the future. Further, issues on water security that involves protection of vulnerable water systems, sustainable development of water resources, safeguarding access to water functions and services, and protection against water related hazards such as floods and droughts. The steadily increasing strain on natural resources in many regions has already led to a precarious balance between the needs of different water users living in river basins and coastal zones. As such, managing water resources for the futu...
A few experiments have been conducted to examine an artificial macropores and their size effects ... more A few experiments have been conducted to examine an artificial macropores and their size effects on water flow and solute transport [1-4]. Allaire-Leung, et al. [ I ] found that water percolation rate with open-open (0-0) macropore was two orders or magnitude higher than those with no macropore. Similarly, Zhou, et al, [2] found that the infiltration rate in the 0-0 macropore was 10-50 times greater than those with no macropore and the other macropore types in their treatment. Biopori has become recently popular approach in reducing surface runoff. However, the effect of its diameter and length on different soil types has not been numerically investigated. The water flow through a loamy soil (2mm sieved and 15% of initial water content) containing an artificial cylindrical macropore having 8 cm in diameter and 9 cm in length was observed through a soil column having 20 cm in diameter and 20 cm in height HYDRUS 2D/3D was employed to simulate the water now of the observed data. Water ...
The relationship between heavy metal and trophic properties in polymictic lake at Sembrong Lake, ... more The relationship between heavy metal and trophic properties in polymictic lake at Sembrong Lake, Peninsular Malaysia was assessed. Sixteen parameters, including heavy metals and trophic parameters were monitored. pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen and heavy metals level changes significantly influenced by the dynamic of polymictic mixing pattern. The mean concentrations of heavy metals in the reservoir decreased in the following order: Fe > Mn > Zn > Cu > As > Pb. The result showed that this polymictic lake is being threatened by cultural eutrophication with TSI value range from 72.40 to 80.41 and classified as a hypereutrophic lake. The levels of heavy metal pollution in the reservoir range from slightly polluted to polluted. Factor analysis was performed to determine the relationship between heavy metals and trophic parameters. Five factors were responsible for data structure and explained the 83% of total variance. These factors differentiate each group of parameter...
Many studies have examined the individual macropores and their size effects on water flow and sol... more Many studies have examined the individual macropores and their size effects on water flow and solute transport. However, the effects of macropore size on reducing surface runoff has not been scientically studied. The present study describes a laboratorium experiment and examine the effects of macropore dimensions and changes in initial soil water content on the cumulative infiltration and the occurrence of first time drainage. The water flow through a loamy soil (2mm sieved and 15% of initial water content) containing an artificial cylindrical macropore having 8 cm in diameter and 9 cm in height was observed through a soil column having 20 cm in diameter and 20 cm in height. HYDRUS 2D/3D was employed to simulate the water flow through the soil at 5 cm. 8 cm. and 10 cm in diameters: and 10 cm. 20 cm and 50 cm in heights of the macropore. Three contrasting initial soil water contents: 15%. 20%. and 25% was applied into the treatment of different sizes of macropore diameters. Overall, ...
Uploads
Papers by Muhamad Askari