Anna McGowan

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University of Michigan

Anthony Waas

University of Washington

Michel Van Tooren

University of South Carolina

W Ethan Lick Eagle

Ahmed Mahjub

Universiti Sains Malaysia

Marco Fioriti

Politecnico di Torino

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Papers by Anna McGowan

MDO and Cross-Disciplinary Practice in R&D: A Portrait of Principles and Current Practice

For several decades, Multidisciplinary Design Optimization (MDO) has served an important role in ... more For several decades, Multidisciplinary Design Optimization (MDO) has served an important role in aerospace engineering by incorporating physicsbased disciplinary models into integrated system or subsystem models for use in research, development, (R&D) and design. This paper examines MDO's role in facilitating the integration of the researchers from different single disciplines during R&D and early design of large-scale complex engineered systems (LaCES) such as aerospace systems. The findings in this paper are summarized from a larger study on interdisciplinary practices and perspectives that included considerable empirical data from surveys, interviews, and ethnography. The synthesized findings were derived by integrating the data with theories from organization science and engineering. The over-arching finding is that issues related to cognition, organization, and social interrelations mostly dominate interactions across disciplines. Engineering issues, such as the integration of hardware or physics-based models, are not as significant. Correspondingly, the data showed that MDO is not the primary integrator of researchers working across disciplines during R&D and early design of LaCES. Cognitive focus such as analysis versus design, organizational challenges such as incentives, and social opportunities such as personal networks often drove the human interactive practices among researchers from different disciplines. Facilitation of the inherent confusion, argument, and learning in crossdisciplinary research was identified as one of several needed elements of enabling successful research across disciplines.

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Using qualitative research methods in engineering design research

In order to support successful strategies in design education and practice, we must have a deep u... more In order to support successful strategies in design education and practice, we must have a deep understanding of the complex dynamics of design processes, teams, contexts, and systems. Facilitating this understanding of engineering design requires research methodologies that can capture the nature of the design process from a diversity of aspects such cognitive, creative, social, organizational, and experiential. Traditionally, research in engineering design has focused on quantitative methodologies whose constructs are familiar to engineers. Our assertion here that qualitative research methodologies that are less familiar to engineers can provide unique scientific insights into the study of engineering design, enabling new findings not obtainable via quantitative methodologies. In this paper we provide an overview of qualitative research methods, outline key opportunities where qualitative methods can be used to enhance engineering design research, and present a case example of a qualitative study on interdisciplinary interactions in complex system design.

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Organizational Influences on Interdisciplinary Interactions during Research and Design of Large-Scale Complex Engineered Systems

12th AIAA Aviation Technology, Integration, and Operations (ATIO) Conference and 14th AIAA/ISSMO Multidisciplinary Analysis and Optimization Conference, Sep 17, 2012

The design of large-scale complex engineered systems (LaCES) such as aircraft is inherently inter... more The design of large-scale complex engineered systems (LaCES) such as aircraft is inherently interdisciplinary where multiple engineering disciplines, drawing from a team of hundreds to thousands of engineers and scientists, are woven together throughout the research, development, and systems engineering processes to realize one system. Though research and development (R&D) is typically focused in single disciplines, the interdependencies involved in LaCES require interdisciplinary R&D efforts. This study investigates the interdisciplinary interactions that take place during the R&D and early conceptual design phases in the design of LaCES. Our theoretical framework is informed by both engineering practices and social science research on complex organizations. This paper provides a preliminary perspective on some of the organizational influences on interdisciplinary interactions based on organization theory (specifically sensemaking), data from a survey of LaCES experts, and the authors' experience in research and design. The analysis reveals couplings between the engineered system and the organization that creates it. Survey respondents noted the importance of interdisciplinary interactions and their significant benefit to the engineered system, such as innovation and problem mitigation. Substantial obstacles to interdisciplinarity are uncovered beyond engineering that include communication and organizational challenges. Addressing these challenges may ultimately foster greater efficiencies in the design and development of LaCES and improved system performance by assisting with the collective integration of interdependent knowledge bases early in the R&D effort. This research suggests that organizational and human dynamics heavily influence and even constrain the engineering effort for large-scale complex systems.

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Designing the Design Process for Early Problem Discovery for a Complex Aeronautics Systems Challenge

Proceedings of the Design Society, 2021

The earliest stage in the innovation lifecycle, problem formulation, is crucial for setting direc... more The earliest stage in the innovation lifecycle, problem formulation, is crucial for setting direction in an innovation effort. When faced with an interesting problem, engineers commonly assume the approximate solution area and focus on ideating innovative solutions. However, in this project, NASA and their contracted partner, Accenture, collaboratively conducted problem discovery to ensure that solutioning efforts were focused on the right problems, for the right users, and addressing the most critical needs—in this case, exploring weather tolerant operations (WTO) to further urban air mobility (UAM) – known as UAM WTO. The project team leveraged generative, qualitative methods to understand the ecosystem, players, and where challenges in the industry are inhibiting development. The complexity of the problem area required that the team constantly observe and iterate on problem discovery, effectively “designing the design process.” This paper discusses the approach, methodologies, an...

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Summaries in Fiscal Year 2001

Since its founding, NASA has been dedicated to the advancement of aeronautics and space science. ... more Since its founding, NASA has been dedicated to the advancement of aeronautics and space science. The NASA Scientific and Technical Infmwnation (STI) Program Office plays a key part in helping NASA maintain this important role. The NASA STI Program Office is operated by Langley Research Center, the lead center for NASA's scientific and technical infmwnation. The NASA STI Program Office provides access to the NASA STI Database, the largest collection of aeronautical and space science STI in the world. The Program Office is also NASA's institutional mechanism for disseminating the results of its research and development activities. These results are published by NASA in the NASA STI Report Series, which includes the following report types:

Efficient Multidisciplinary Analysis Approach for Conceptual Design of Aircraft with Large Shape Change

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Perspectives on Highly Adaptive or Morphing Aircraft

The ability to adapt to different flight conditions has been fundamental to aircraft design since... more The ability to adapt to different flight conditions has been fundamental to aircraft design since the Wright Brothers first flight. Over a hundred years later, unconventional aircraft adaptability, often called aircraft morphing has become a topic of considerable renewed interest. In the past two decades, this interest has been largely fuelled by advancements in multi-functional or smart materials and structures. However, highly adaptive or morphing aircraft is certainly a cross-discipline challenge that stimulates a wide range of design possibilities. This paper will review some of the history of morphing aircraft including recent research programs and discuss some perspectives on this work.

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Organizational Influences on Interdisciplinary Interactions during Research and Design of Large-Scale Complex Engineered Systems

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Defense Technical Information Center Compilation Part Notice ADP 010487 TITLE : Research Activities Within NASA ' s Morphing Program

aeroelastic control, and other aerospace areas. Smart In the last decade, smart technologies have... more aeroelastic control, and other aerospace areas. Smart In the last decade, smart technologies have become important technologies are currently under development for each enabling technologies that cut across traditional boundaries in application area. In some cases, the smart technologies are science and engineering. Here smart is defined as the ability consolidated into devices that have local sensing and feedback to respond to a stimulus in a predictable and reproducible control. For many applications, these devices will modify manner. While multiple successes have been achieved in the local phenomena to support a macroscopic strategy, such as laboratory, we have yet to see the general applicability of flow separation control for advanced high lift systems. smart technologies to actual aircraft and spacecraft. The Consequently, a combined approach to control systems and NASA Morphing program is an attempt to couple research system identification is being used in the Morphing progra...

Integrated Aerodynamic/Structural/Dynamic Analyses of Aircrafts with Large Shape Changes

48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference, 2007

The conceptual and preliminary design processes for aircraft with large shape changes are general... more The conceptual and preliminary design processes for aircraft with large shape changes are generally difficult and time-consuming, and the processes are often customized for a specific shape change concept to streamline the vehicle design effort. Accordingly, several existing reports show excellent results of assessing a particular shape change concept or perturbations of a concept. The goal of the current effort was to develop a multidisciplinary analysis tool and process that would enable an aircraft designer to assess several very different morphing concepts early in the design phase and yet obtain second-order performance results so that design decisions can be made with better confidence. The approach uses an efficient parametric model formulation that allows automatic model generation for systems undergoing radical shape changes as a function of aerodynamic parameters, geometry parameters, and shape change parameters. In contrast to other more self-contained approaches, the approach utilizes off-the-shelf analysis modules to reduce development time and to make it accessible to many users. Because the analysis is loosely coupled, discipline modules like a multibody code can be easily swapped for other modules with similar capabilities. One of the advantages of this loosely coupled system is the ability to use the medium-to high-fidelity tools early in the design stages when the information can significantly influence and improve overall vehicle design. Data transfer among the analysis modules are based on an accurate and automated general purpose data transfer tool. In general, setup time for the integrated system presented in this paper is 2-4 days for simple shape change concepts and 1-2 weeks for more mechanically complicated concepts. Some of the key elements briefly described in the paper include parametric model development, aerodynamic database generation, multibody analysis, and the required software modules as well as examples for a telescoping wing, a folding wing, and a bat-like wing.

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Aeroservoelastic and structural dynamics research on smart structures conducted at NASA Langley Research Center

Smart Structures and Materials 1998: Industrial and Commercial Applications of Smart Structures Technologies, 1998

An overview of smart structures research currently underway at the NASA Langley Research Center i... more An overview of smart structures research currently underway at the NASA Langley Research Center in the areas of aeroservoelasticity and structural dynamics is presented. Analytical and experimental results, plans, potential technology pay-offs, and challenges are discussed. The goal of this research is to develop the enabling technologies to actively and passively control aircraft and rotorcraft vibration and loads using smart devices. These enabling technologies and related research efforts include developing experimentally-validated finite element and aeroservoelastic modeling techniques; conducting bench experimental tests to assess feasibility and understand system trade-offs; and conducting large-scale windtunnel tests to demonstrate system performance. The key aeroservoelastic applications of this research include: active twist control of rotor blades using interdigitated electrode piezoelectric composites and active control of flutter, and gust and buffeting responses using discrete piezoelectric patches. In addition, NASA Langley is an active participant in the DARPA/ Air Force Research Laboratory/ NASA/ Northrop Grumman Smart Wing program which is assessing aerodynamic performance benefits using smart materials.

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A Socio-Technical Perspective on Interdisciplinary Interactions During the Development of Complex Engineered Systems

Procedia Computer Science, 2013

This study investigates interdisciplinary interactions that take place during the research, devel... more This study investigates interdisciplinary interactions that take place during the research, development, and early conceptual design phases in the engineering of large-scale complex engineered systems (LaCES) such as aerospace vehicles. These interactions that occur throughout a large engineering development organization, become the initial conditions of the systems engineering process ultimately leading to the development of a viable system. This paper summarizes some of the challenges and opportunities regarding social and organizational issues that emerged from a qualitative study using ethnographic and survey data. The analysis reveals several socio-technical couplings between the engineered system and the organization that creates it. Survey respondents noted the importance of interdisciplinary interactions and their benefits to the engineered system as well as substantial challenges in interdisciplinary interactions. Noted benefits included enhanced knowledge and problem mitigation and noted obstacles centered on organizational and human dynamics. Findings suggest that addressing the social challenges may be a critical need in enabling interdisciplinary interactions during the development of LaCES.

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Smart Structures and Materials 2002: Industrial and Commercial Applications of Smart Structures Technologies (Proceedings Volume)

... Design, fabrication, and testing of scaled wind tunnel model for the Smart Wing Phase 2 progr... more

An Examination of Applying Shunted Piezoelectrics to Reduce Aeroelastic Response

Several analytical and experimental studies clearly demonstrate that piezoelectric materials (pie... more Several analytical and experimental studies clearly demonstrate that piezoelectric materials (piezoelectrics) can be used as actuators to actively control vibratory response, including aeroelastic response. Hovever, two important issues in using piezoelectrics as actuators for active control are: 1) the potentially large amount ofpover required to operate the actuators, and 2) the complexities involved vith active control (added hardware, control lav design, and implementation). Active or passive damping augmentation using shunted piezoelectrics may provide a viable alternative. This approach requires only simple electrical circuitry and very little or no electrical pover. The current study examines the feasibility of using shunted piezoelectrics to reduce aeroelastic response using a typical-section representation of a wing and piezoelectrics shunted vith a parallel resistor and inductor. The aeroelastic analysis shovs that shunted piezoelectrics can effectively reduce aeroelastic ...

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Design thinking vs. systems thinking for engineering design: What's the difference?

Design thinking (DT) and engineering systems thinking (EST) are two complementary approaches to u... more Design thinking (DT) and engineering systems thinking (EST) are two complementary approaches to understanding cognition, organization, and other non-technical factors that influence the design and performance of engineering systems. Until relatively recently, these two concepts have been explored in isolation from one another; design thinking methods have been applied to industrial design and product development, while engineering systems thinking is used in professional systems engineering practice and large-scale, complex systems design. This work seeks to explore the relationship between these two concepts, comparing their historical development, values, applications, and methods. The primary contribution of the work is a set of four concept models that depict plausible relationships between design thinking and systems thinking for engineering design.

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Interdisciplinary Interactions During R&D and Early Design of Large Engineered Systems

Designing Large-Scale Complex Engineered Systems (LaCES) such as aircraft and submarines requires... more Designing Large-Scale Complex Engineered Systems (LaCES) such as aircraft and submarines requires the input of thousands of engineers and scientists whose work is proximate in neither time nor space. Comprehensive knowledge of the system is dispersed among specialists whose expertise is in typically one system component or discipline. This study examined the interactive work practices among such specialists seeking to improve engineering practice through a rigorous and theoretical understanding of current practice. This research explored current interdisciplinary practices and perspectives during R&D and early LaCES design and identified why these practices and perspectives prevail and persist. The research design consisted of a three-fold, integrative approach that combined an open-ended survey, semi-structured interviews, and ethnography. Significant empirical data from experienced engineers and scientists in a large engineering organization were obtained and integrated with theor...

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A Framework of Working Across Disciplines in Early Design and R&D of Large Complex Engineered Systems

This paper examines four primary methods of working across disciplines during R&D and early desig... more This paper examines four primary methods of working across disciplines during R&D and early design of large-scale complex engineered systems such as aerospace systems. A conceptualized framework, called the Combining System Elements framework, is presented to delineate several aspects of cross-discipline and system integration practice. The framework is derived from a theoretical and empirical analysis of current work practices in actual operational settings and is informed by theories from organization science and engineering. The explanatory framework may be used by teams to clarify assumptions and associated work practices, which may reduce ambiguity in understanding diverse approaches to early systems research, development and design. The framework also highlights that very different engineering results may be obtained depending on work practices, even when the goals for the engineered system are the same.

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Lessons Learned from Applying Design Thinking in a NASA Rapid Design Study in Aeronautics

58th AIAA/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference, Jan 5, 2017

In late 2015, NASA's Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate (ARMD) funded an experiment in rapi... more In late 2015, NASA's Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate (ARMD) funded an experiment in rapid design and rapid teaming to explore new approaches to solving challenging design problems in aeronautics in an effort to cultivate and foster innovation. This report summarizes several lessons learned from the rapid design portion of the study. This effort entailed learning and applying design thinking, a human-centered design approach, to complete the conceptual design for an open-ended design challenge within six months. The design challenge focused on creating a capability to advance experimental testing of autonomous aeronautics systems, an area of great interest to NASA, the US government as a whole, and an entire ecosystem of users and developers around the globe. A team of nine civil servant researchers from three of NASA's aeronautics field centers with backgrounds in several disciplines was assembled and rapidly trained in design thinking under the guidance of the innovation and design firm IDEO. The design thinking process, while used extensively outside the aerospace industry, is less common and even counter to many practices within the aerospace industry. In this report, several contrasts between common aerospace research and development practices and design thinking are discussed, drawing upon the lessons learned from the NASA rapid design study. The lessons discussed included working towards a design solution without a set of detailed design requirements, which may not be practical or even feasible for management to ascertain for complex, challenging problems. This approach allowed for the possibility of redesigning the original problem statement to better meet the needs of the users. Another lesson learned was to approach problems holistically from the perspective of the needs of individuals that may be affected by advances in topic area instead of purely from a technological feasibility viewpoint. The interdisciplinary nature of the design team also provided valuable experience by allowing team members from different technological backgrounds to work side-by-side instead of dividing into smaller teams, as is frequently done in traditional multidisciplinary design. The team also learned how to work with qualitative data obtained primarily through the 70-plus interviews that were conducted over the course of this project, which was a sharp contrast to using quantitative data with regards to identifying, capturing, analyzing, storing, and recalling the data. When identifying potential interviewees who may have useful contributions to the design subject area, the team found great value in talking to non-traditional users and potential beneficiaries of autonomous aeronautics systems whose impact on the aeronautics autonomy ecosystem is growing swiftly. Finally, the team benefitted from using "sacrificial prototyping," which is a method of rapidly prototyping draft concepts and ideas with the intent of enabling potential users to provide significant feedback early in the design process. This contrasts the more common approach of using expensive prototypes that focus on demonstrating technical feasibility. The unique design approach and lessons learned by the team throughout this process culminated in a final design concept that was quite different than what the team originally assumed would be the design concept initially. A summary of the more usercentered final design concept is also provided.

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The Design of Large-Scale Complex Engineered Systems: Present Challenges and Future Promise

Large-Scale Complex Engineered Systems (LSCES) dominate the aerospace, maritime and nuclear indus... more Large-Scale Complex Engineered Systems (LSCES) dominate the aerospace, maritime and nuclear industries. Systems such as aircraft carriers, nuclear power plants, spacecraft, and submarines represent several unique challenges for the engineering designer, as well as the systems engineer. These challenges include extraordinary costs and risks, and the inability to fully test and evaluate the complete system until it is nearly operational. These systems have become increasingly complex and sophisticated over the past fifty years, largely due to the sheer magnitude of inherent couplings that exist between disciplines, components, geographically-distributed organizations, and people. These systems are regularly prone to crippling time and cost overruns, largely due to the unintended consequences arising from unknown or unexpected interactions. The methods, processes and tools used by practitioners have not kept pace with the growing complexity of LSCES. Indeed, a complex system is now required in order to design and produce a complex system, where the elements of both draw just as heavily from social fields as they do from technical fields. This paper will explore the challenges that exist in the design of LSCES, the existing foundations from which we can draw to build a new framework for design of LSCES, and the research opportunities that will hopefully lead to new theories for the design of LSCES. This paper represents the opinions and vision of the authors, who recognize that the true challenge of advancing the design of LSCES will depend on the views and contributions of an extremely broad and diverse number of disciplines from technical and social fields.

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Organizational Influences on Interdisciplinary Interactions during Research and Design of Large-Scale Complex Engineered Systems

The design of large-scale complex engineered systems (LaCES) such as aircraft is inherently inter... more The design of large-scale complex engineered systems (LaCES) such as aircraft is inherently interdisciplinary where multiple engineering disciplines, drawing from a team of hundreds to thousands of engineers and scientists, are woven together throughout the research, development, and systems engineering processes to realize one system. Though research and development (R&D) is typically focused in single disciplines, the interdependencies involved in LaCES require interdisciplinary R&D efforts. This study investigates the interdisciplinary interactions that take place during the R&D and early conceptual design phases in the design of LaCES. Our theoretical framework is informed by both engineering practices and social science research on complex organizations. This paper provides a preliminary perspective on some of the organizational influences on interdisciplinary interactions based on organization theory (specifically sensemaking), data from a survey of LaCES experts, and the authors’ experience in research and design. The analysis reveals couplings between the engineered system and the organization that creates it. Survey respondents noted the importance of interdisciplinary interactions and their significant benefit to the engineered system, such as innovation and problem mitigation. Substantial obstacles to interdisciplinarity are uncovered beyond engineering that include communication and organizational challenges. Addressing these challenges may ultimately foster greater efficiencies in the design and development of LaCES and improved system performance by assisting with the collective integration of interdependent knowledge bases early in the R&D effort. This research suggests that organizational and human dynamics heavily influence and even constrain the engineering effort for large-scale complex systems.

MDO and Cross-Disciplinary Practice in R&D: A Portrait of Principles and Current Practice

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Using qualitative research methods in engineering design research

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Organizational Influences on Interdisciplinary Interactions during Research and Design of Large-Scale Complex Engineered Systems

12th AIAA Aviation Technology, Integration, and Operations (ATIO) Conference and 14th AIAA/ISSMO Multidisciplinary Analysis and Optimization Conference, Sep 17, 2012

Download

Designing the Design Process for Early Problem Discovery for a Complex Aeronautics Systems Challenge

Proceedings of the Design Society, 2021

Download

Summaries in Fiscal Year 2001

Efficient Multidisciplinary Analysis Approach for Conceptual Design of Aircraft with Large Shape Change

Download

Perspectives on Highly Adaptive or Morphing Aircraft

Download

Organizational Influences on Interdisciplinary Interactions during Research and Design of Large-Scale Complex Engineered Systems

Download

Defense Technical Information Center Compilation Part Notice ADP 010487 TITLE : Research Activities Within NASA ' s Morphing Program

Integrated Aerodynamic/Structural/Dynamic Analyses of Aircrafts with Large Shape Changes

48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference, 2007

Download

Aeroservoelastic and structural dynamics research on smart structures conducted at NASA Langley Research Center

Smart Structures and Materials 1998: Industrial and Commercial Applications of Smart Structures Technologies, 1998

Download

A Socio-Technical Perspective on Interdisciplinary Interactions During the Development of Complex Engineered Systems

Procedia Computer Science, 2013

Download

Smart Structures and Materials 2002: Industrial and Commercial Applications of Smart Structures Technologies (Proceedings Volume)

... Design, fabrication, and testing of scaled wind tunnel model for the Smart Wing Phase 2 progr... more

An Examination of Applying Shunted Piezoelectrics to Reduce Aeroelastic Response

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Design thinking vs. systems thinking for engineering design: What's the difference?

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Interdisciplinary Interactions During R&D and Early Design of Large Engineered Systems

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A Framework of Working Across Disciplines in Early Design and R&D of Large Complex Engineered Systems

Download

Lessons Learned from Applying Design Thinking in a NASA Rapid Design Study in Aeronautics

58th AIAA/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference, Jan 5, 2017

Download

The Design of Large-Scale Complex Engineered Systems: Present Challenges and Future Promise

Download

Organizational Influences on Interdisciplinary Interactions during Research and Design of Large-Scale Complex Engineered Systems

The design of large-scale complex engineered systems (LaCES) such as aircraft is inherently inter... more The design of large-scale complex engineered systems (LaCES) such as aircraft is inherently interdisciplinary where multiple engineering disciplines, drawing from a team of hundreds to thousands of engineers and scientists, are woven together throughout the research, development, and systems engineering processes to realize one system. Though research and development (R&D) is typically focused in single disciplines, the interdependencies involved in LaCES require interdisciplinary R&D efforts. This study investigates the interdisciplinary interactions that take place during the R&D and early conceptual design phases in the design of LaCES. Our theoretical framework is informed by both engineering practices and social science research on complex organizations. This paper provides a preliminary perspective on some of the organizational influences on interdisciplinary interactions based on organization theory (specifically sensemaking), data from a survey of LaCES experts, and the authors’ experience in research and design. The analysis reveals couplings between the engineered system and the organization that creates it. Survey respondents noted the importance of interdisciplinary interactions and their significant benefit to the engineered system, such as innovation and problem mitigation. Substantial obstacles to interdisciplinarity are uncovered beyond engineering that include communication and organizational challenges. Addressing these challenges may ultimately foster greater efficiencies in the design and development of LaCES and improved system performance by assisting with the collective integration of interdependent knowledge bases early in the R&D effort. This research suggests that organizational and human dynamics heavily influence and even constrain the engineering effort for large-scale complex systems.

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