Simultaneous multiple immunolabeling in field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) is li... more Simultaneous multiple immunolabeling in field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) is limited by the number of suitable markers which is possible to distinguish in the microscope. At present two sizes of gold nanoparticles, e.g. 5 and 15 nm, are used for simultaneous labeling of two antigens in the observed cell surface structures. The detection of backscattered electrons in FESEM offers to use colloidal metal nanoparticles (NPs) made from other elements, because the BSE signal is very sensitive to the atomic number Z of the observed specimen area. The aim of this study was to select colloidal metal NPs that might be suitable markers, and test their stability in FESEM, their ability to conjugate them to antibodies and possibility to distinguish them from the gold nanoparticles using BSE signal. Based on our measurements, laboratory synthesized Pd nanoparticles in sizes between 8-15 nm and double shell Ag Au nanoparticles with the diameter around 15 nm were selected as the m...
Cellular motility is essential for microscopic parasites, it is used to reach the host, migrate t... more Cellular motility is essential for microscopic parasites, it is used to reach the host, migrate through tissues, or evade host immune reactions. Many cells employ an evolutionary conserved motor proteinactin, to crawl or glide along a substrate. We describe the peculiar movement of Sphaerospora molnari, a myxozoan parasite with proliferating blood stages in its host, common carp. Myxozoa are highly adapted parasitic cnidarians alternately infecting vertebrates and invertebrates. S. molnari blood stages (SMBS) have developed a unique "dancing" behaviour, using the external membrane as a motility effector to rotate and move the cell. SMBS movement is exceptionally fast compared to other myxozoans, non-directional and constant. The movement is based on two cytoplasmic actins that are highly divergent from those of other metazoans. We produced a specific polyclonal actin antibody for the staining and immunolabelling of S. molnari's microfilaments since we found that neither commercial antibodies nor phalloidin recognised the protein or microfilaments. We show the in situ localization of this actin in the parasite and discuss the importance of this motility for evasion from the cellular host immune response in vitro. This new type of motility holds key insights into the evolution of cellular motility and associated proteins. Motility is a basic requirement for all cells; one of the main driving forces is acto-myosin contraction which is highly conserved between divergent taxa. Polarized motility is based on the polymerization of actin into filaments leading to compartmentalized pressure that is used to push the leading edge of the cell membrane, and depolymerisation occurs at the trailing edge to create a forward motion 1. Motility in parasites has been adapted to many functions including, host cell invasion 2 , evasion of the host immune system 3 and transportation to key tissues within the host 4. Actin is one of the most conserved proteins in eukaryotes, both the primary sequence and structure have been conserved despite more than 80 actin forms reported in many biological functions in addition to cellular motility 5. In prokaryotes, the structure and sequence are also somewhat conserved in MreB proteins leading to speculation about a shared origin of actin 6. Other common motility proteins such as muscle type myosin heavy chain II have been identified in cnidarians and ctenophores despite lacking striated muscles 7. It is unclear if this is a case of independent evolution or, reassignment of a protein retained from a bilaterian and cnidarian ancestor with striated muscles. Cnidarians have undergone many unique gene loss and invention events since their evolution from the common ancestor with bilaterians, with a number of taxon or lineage specific gene expansion events within Cnidaria 8. The innovative nature of their gene evolution could be linked to the highly plastic and variable cnidarian biology in which life strategies range from free living to semi-parasitic and completely parasitic, some with larval stages, some as active migraters etc. 8. The conquest of these diverse biological niches has led to a high variety of cnidarian orthologues and proteins.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Jan 13, 2020
The adaptation of eukaryotic cells to anaerobic conditions is reflected by substantial changes to... more The adaptation of eukaryotic cells to anaerobic conditions is reflected by substantial changes to mitochondrial metabolism and functional reduction. Hydrogenosomes belong among the most modified mitochondrial derivative and generate molecular hydrogen concomitant with ATP synthesis. The reduction of mitochondria is frequently associated with loss of peroxisomes, which compartmentalize pathways that generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) and thus protect against cellular damage. The biogenesis and function of peroxisomes are tightly coupled with mitochondria. These organelles share fission machinery components, oxidative metabolism pathways, ROS scavenging activities, and some metabolites. The loss of peroxisomes in eukaryotes with reduced mitochondria is thus not unexpected. Surprisingly, we identified peroxisomes in the anaerobic, hydrogenosome-bearing protist Mastigamoeba balamuthi . We found a conserved set of peroxin (Pex) proteins that are required for protein import, peroxisomal growth, and division. Key membrane-associated Pexs ( Mb Pex3, Mb Pex11, and Mb Pex14) were visualized in numerous vesicles distinct from hydrogenosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and Golgi complex. Proteomic analysis of cellular fractions and prediction of peroxisomal targeting signals (PTS1/PTS2) identified 51 putative peroxisomal matrix proteins. Expression of selected proteins in Saccharomyces cerevisiae revealed specific targeting to peroxisomes. The matrix proteins identified included components of acyl-CoA and carbohydrate metabolism and pyrimidine and CoA biosynthesis, whereas no components related to either β-oxidation or catalase were present. In conclusion, we identified a subclass of peroxisomes, named “anaerobic” peroxisomes that shift the current paradigm and turn attention to the reductive evolution of peroxisomes in anaerobic organisms.
Alteration of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a hallmark of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE), a lif... more Alteration of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a hallmark of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE), a life-threating human viral neuroinfection. However, the mechanism of BBB breakdown during TBE, as well as TBE virus (TBEV) entry into the brain is unclear. Here, primary human microvascular endothelial cells (HBMECs) were infected with TBEV to study interactions with the BBB. Although the number of infected cells was relatively low in culture (< 5%), the infection was persistent with high TBEV yields (> 10 6 pfu/ml). Infection did not induce any significant changes in the expression of key tight junction proteins or upregulate the expression of cell adhesion molecules, and did not alter the highly organized intercellular junctions between HBMECs. In an in vitro BBB model, the virus crossed the BBB via a transcellular pathway without compromising the integrity of the cell monolayer. The results indicate that HBMECs may support TBEV entry into the brain without altering BBB integrity.
Spirochetal bacteria were successfully isolated from mosquitoes (Culex pipiens, Aedes cinereus) i... more Spirochetal bacteria were successfully isolated from mosquitoes (Culex pipiens, Aedes cinereus) in the Czech Republic between 1999 and 2002. Preliminary 16S rRNA phylogenetic sequence analysis showed that these strains differed significantly from other spirochetal genera within the family Spirochaetaceae and suggested a novel bacterial genus in this family. To obtain more comprehensive genomic information of these isolates, we used Illumina MiSeq and Oxford Nanopore technologies to sequence four genomes of these spirochetes (BR151, BR149, BR193, BR208). The overall size of the genomes varied between 1.68 and 1.78 Mb; the GC content ranged from 38.5 to 45.8%. Draft genomes were compared to 36 publicly available genomes encompassing eight genera from the class Spirochaetes. A phylogeny generated from orthologous genes across all taxa and the percentage of conserved proteins (POCP) confirmed the genus status of these novel spirochetes. The genus Entomospira gen. nov. is proposed with BR151 selected as type species of the genus. For this isolate and the closest related isolate, BR149, we propose the species name Entomospira culicis sp. nov. The two other isolates BR208 and BR193 are named Entomospira nematocera sp. nov. (BR208) and Entomospira entomophilus sp. nov. (BR193). Finally, we discuss their interesting phylogenetic positioning. The phylum Spirochaetes Garrity and Holt 2001 encompasses motile free-living, host associated and parasitic microorganisms all of which are characterised by their distinct helical morphology. Unique spirochetal strains were isolated between 1999 and 2002 in the Czech Republic 1 from mosquitoes of the genera Aedes, Culex and blackflies of the genus Simulium. The bacteria were mainly found in aquatic larval stages with prevalence ranging from 7 to 90%, especially in Culex and Simulium. However, the number of collected adult stages was low in most years in all mosquito genera. For Culex mosquitoes a reasonable number of adult females were found in 1999 and 2000 and the prevalence of spirochetes ranged between 2 and 5%. In this paper we have determined the genome sequences of four spirochetal isolates from mosquitoes (BR151, BR149, BR193, BR208) and re-evaluated their taxonomic position. These isolates were previously provisionally named 'Candidatus Spironema culicis' based on partial 16S rRNA analysis 1. Our working hypothesis was that these isolates belong to a new genus that is part of the family Spirochaetaceae Swellengrebel 1907. Analyses of conserved proteins and phylogenies confirmed their relationship amongst each other and to other taxa; and suggest that these isolates form indeed a new genus containing several new species.
Extended abstract of a paper presented at MC 2007, 33rd DGE Conference in Saarbrücken, Germany, S... more Extended abstract of a paper presented at MC 2007, 33rd DGE Conference in Saarbrücken, Germany, September 2 – September 7, 2007
Lyme disease (LD) spirochetes are well known to be able to disseminate into the tissues of infect... more Lyme disease (LD) spirochetes are well known to be able to disseminate into the tissues of infected hosts, including humans. The diverse strategies used by spirochetes to avoid the host immune system and persist in the host include active immune suppression, induction of immune tolerance, phase and antigenic variation, intracellular seclusion, and, importantly, incursion into immune privileged sites such as the brain. Invasion of immune privileged sites, like the brain allows the spirochetes not only escape from the host immune system but also can reduce the efficacy of antibiotic therapy. Here we present a case of the detection of DNA of spirochetes from Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex from multiple loci of LD patient’s post-mortem brain. The presence of co-infection with Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto and Borrelia garinii in LD patient’s brain was confirmed by PCR. The presence of atypical spirochete morphology was confirmed by immunohistochemistry of the brain samples...
We report for the first time the use of two live-cell imaging agents from the group of luminescen... more We report for the first time the use of two live-cell imaging agents from the group of luminescent transition metal complexes (IRAZOLVE-MITO and REZOLVE-ER) as cathodoluminescent probes. This first experimental demonstration shows the application of both probes for the identification of cellular structures at the nanoscale and near the native state directly in the cryo-scanning electron microscope. This approach can potentially be applied to correlative and multimodal approaches and used to target specific regions within vitrified samples at low electron beam energies.
SUMMARYBarium (Ba) and strontium (Sr) are often used as proxies for the reconstruction of past ma... more SUMMARYBarium (Ba) and strontium (Sr) are often used as proxies for the reconstruction of past marine productivity and global climate. The ability to accumulate Ba2+ and Sr2+ in the form of crystals is rare among eukaryotes. Here we report that unicellular heterotrophs called diplonemids (Euglenozoa), one of the most abundant groups of marine planktonic protists, accumulate conspicuous amounts of these trace elements in the form of intracellular barite (BaSO4) and celestite (SrSO4) crystals, in concentrations greater than in other known Ba/Sr-accumulating organisms. Moreover, these flagellates can uptake Sr2+ exclusively or together with Ba2+ and form (Ba,Sr)SO4. One species, Namystinia karyoxenos, is naturally capable of intracellular accumulation of Ba2+ and Sr2+ 42,000 and 10,000 times relative to the surrounding medium. Altering the amounts of both elements in the medium resulted in corresponding changes in the quantity and composition of crystals. Planktonic copepods fed with d...
Kinesins are motor proteins found in all eukaryotic lineages that move along microtubules to medi... more Kinesins are motor proteins found in all eukaryotic lineages that move along microtubules to mediate cellular processes such as mitosis and intracellular transport. In trypanosomatids, the kinesin superfamily has undergone a prominent expansion, resulting in one of the most diverse kinesin repertoires that includes the two kinetoplastid‐restricted families X1 and X2. Here, we characterize in Trypanosoma brucei TbKifX2A, an orphaned X2 kinesin. TbKifX2A tightly interacts with TbPH1, a kinesin‐like protein with a likely inactive motor domain, a rarely reported occurrence. Both TbKifX2A and TbPH1 localize to the microtubule quartet (MtQ), a characteristic but poorly understood cytoskeletal structure that wraps around the flagellar pocket as it extends to the cell body anterior. The proximal proteome of TbPH1 revealed two other interacting proteins, the flagellar pocket protein FP45 and intriguingly another X2 kinesin, TbKifX2C. Simultaneous ablation of TbKifX2A/TbPH1 results in the dep...
Extended abstract of a paper presented at MC 2007, 33rd DGE Conference in Saarbrücken, Germany, S... more Extended abstract of a paper presented at MC 2007, 33rd DGE Conference in Saarbrücken, Germany, September 2 – September 7, 2007
Simultaneous multiple immunolabeling in field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) is li... more Simultaneous multiple immunolabeling in field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) is limited by the number of suitable markers which is possible to distinguish in the microscope. At present two sizes of gold nanoparticles, e.g. 5 and 15 nm, are used for simultaneous labeling of two antigens in the observed cell surface structures. The detection of backscattered electrons in FESEM offers to use colloidal metal nanoparticles (NPs) made from other elements, because the BSE signal is very sensitive to the atomic number Z of the observed specimen area. The aim of this study was to select colloidal metal NPs that might be suitable markers, and test their stability in FESEM, their ability to conjugate them to antibodies and possibility to distinguish them from the gold nanoparticles using BSE signal. Based on our measurements, laboratory synthesized Pd nanoparticles in sizes between 8-15 nm and double shell Ag Au nanoparticles with the diameter around 15 nm were selected as the m...
Cellular motility is essential for microscopic parasites, it is used to reach the host, migrate t... more Cellular motility is essential for microscopic parasites, it is used to reach the host, migrate through tissues, or evade host immune reactions. Many cells employ an evolutionary conserved motor proteinactin, to crawl or glide along a substrate. We describe the peculiar movement of Sphaerospora molnari, a myxozoan parasite with proliferating blood stages in its host, common carp. Myxozoa are highly adapted parasitic cnidarians alternately infecting vertebrates and invertebrates. S. molnari blood stages (SMBS) have developed a unique "dancing" behaviour, using the external membrane as a motility effector to rotate and move the cell. SMBS movement is exceptionally fast compared to other myxozoans, non-directional and constant. The movement is based on two cytoplasmic actins that are highly divergent from those of other metazoans. We produced a specific polyclonal actin antibody for the staining and immunolabelling of S. molnari's microfilaments since we found that neither commercial antibodies nor phalloidin recognised the protein or microfilaments. We show the in situ localization of this actin in the parasite and discuss the importance of this motility for evasion from the cellular host immune response in vitro. This new type of motility holds key insights into the evolution of cellular motility and associated proteins. Motility is a basic requirement for all cells; one of the main driving forces is acto-myosin contraction which is highly conserved between divergent taxa. Polarized motility is based on the polymerization of actin into filaments leading to compartmentalized pressure that is used to push the leading edge of the cell membrane, and depolymerisation occurs at the trailing edge to create a forward motion 1. Motility in parasites has been adapted to many functions including, host cell invasion 2 , evasion of the host immune system 3 and transportation to key tissues within the host 4. Actin is one of the most conserved proteins in eukaryotes, both the primary sequence and structure have been conserved despite more than 80 actin forms reported in many biological functions in addition to cellular motility 5. In prokaryotes, the structure and sequence are also somewhat conserved in MreB proteins leading to speculation about a shared origin of actin 6. Other common motility proteins such as muscle type myosin heavy chain II have been identified in cnidarians and ctenophores despite lacking striated muscles 7. It is unclear if this is a case of independent evolution or, reassignment of a protein retained from a bilaterian and cnidarian ancestor with striated muscles. Cnidarians have undergone many unique gene loss and invention events since their evolution from the common ancestor with bilaterians, with a number of taxon or lineage specific gene expansion events within Cnidaria 8. The innovative nature of their gene evolution could be linked to the highly plastic and variable cnidarian biology in which life strategies range from free living to semi-parasitic and completely parasitic, some with larval stages, some as active migraters etc. 8. The conquest of these diverse biological niches has led to a high variety of cnidarian orthologues and proteins.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Jan 13, 2020
The adaptation of eukaryotic cells to anaerobic conditions is reflected by substantial changes to... more The adaptation of eukaryotic cells to anaerobic conditions is reflected by substantial changes to mitochondrial metabolism and functional reduction. Hydrogenosomes belong among the most modified mitochondrial derivative and generate molecular hydrogen concomitant with ATP synthesis. The reduction of mitochondria is frequently associated with loss of peroxisomes, which compartmentalize pathways that generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) and thus protect against cellular damage. The biogenesis and function of peroxisomes are tightly coupled with mitochondria. These organelles share fission machinery components, oxidative metabolism pathways, ROS scavenging activities, and some metabolites. The loss of peroxisomes in eukaryotes with reduced mitochondria is thus not unexpected. Surprisingly, we identified peroxisomes in the anaerobic, hydrogenosome-bearing protist Mastigamoeba balamuthi . We found a conserved set of peroxin (Pex) proteins that are required for protein import, peroxisomal growth, and division. Key membrane-associated Pexs ( Mb Pex3, Mb Pex11, and Mb Pex14) were visualized in numerous vesicles distinct from hydrogenosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and Golgi complex. Proteomic analysis of cellular fractions and prediction of peroxisomal targeting signals (PTS1/PTS2) identified 51 putative peroxisomal matrix proteins. Expression of selected proteins in Saccharomyces cerevisiae revealed specific targeting to peroxisomes. The matrix proteins identified included components of acyl-CoA and carbohydrate metabolism and pyrimidine and CoA biosynthesis, whereas no components related to either β-oxidation or catalase were present. In conclusion, we identified a subclass of peroxisomes, named “anaerobic” peroxisomes that shift the current paradigm and turn attention to the reductive evolution of peroxisomes in anaerobic organisms.
Alteration of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a hallmark of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE), a lif... more Alteration of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a hallmark of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE), a life-threating human viral neuroinfection. However, the mechanism of BBB breakdown during TBE, as well as TBE virus (TBEV) entry into the brain is unclear. Here, primary human microvascular endothelial cells (HBMECs) were infected with TBEV to study interactions with the BBB. Although the number of infected cells was relatively low in culture (< 5%), the infection was persistent with high TBEV yields (> 10 6 pfu/ml). Infection did not induce any significant changes in the expression of key tight junction proteins or upregulate the expression of cell adhesion molecules, and did not alter the highly organized intercellular junctions between HBMECs. In an in vitro BBB model, the virus crossed the BBB via a transcellular pathway without compromising the integrity of the cell monolayer. The results indicate that HBMECs may support TBEV entry into the brain without altering BBB integrity.
Spirochetal bacteria were successfully isolated from mosquitoes (Culex pipiens, Aedes cinereus) i... more Spirochetal bacteria were successfully isolated from mosquitoes (Culex pipiens, Aedes cinereus) in the Czech Republic between 1999 and 2002. Preliminary 16S rRNA phylogenetic sequence analysis showed that these strains differed significantly from other spirochetal genera within the family Spirochaetaceae and suggested a novel bacterial genus in this family. To obtain more comprehensive genomic information of these isolates, we used Illumina MiSeq and Oxford Nanopore technologies to sequence four genomes of these spirochetes (BR151, BR149, BR193, BR208). The overall size of the genomes varied between 1.68 and 1.78 Mb; the GC content ranged from 38.5 to 45.8%. Draft genomes were compared to 36 publicly available genomes encompassing eight genera from the class Spirochaetes. A phylogeny generated from orthologous genes across all taxa and the percentage of conserved proteins (POCP) confirmed the genus status of these novel spirochetes. The genus Entomospira gen. nov. is proposed with BR151 selected as type species of the genus. For this isolate and the closest related isolate, BR149, we propose the species name Entomospira culicis sp. nov. The two other isolates BR208 and BR193 are named Entomospira nematocera sp. nov. (BR208) and Entomospira entomophilus sp. nov. (BR193). Finally, we discuss their interesting phylogenetic positioning. The phylum Spirochaetes Garrity and Holt 2001 encompasses motile free-living, host associated and parasitic microorganisms all of which are characterised by their distinct helical morphology. Unique spirochetal strains were isolated between 1999 and 2002 in the Czech Republic 1 from mosquitoes of the genera Aedes, Culex and blackflies of the genus Simulium. The bacteria were mainly found in aquatic larval stages with prevalence ranging from 7 to 90%, especially in Culex and Simulium. However, the number of collected adult stages was low in most years in all mosquito genera. For Culex mosquitoes a reasonable number of adult females were found in 1999 and 2000 and the prevalence of spirochetes ranged between 2 and 5%. In this paper we have determined the genome sequences of four spirochetal isolates from mosquitoes (BR151, BR149, BR193, BR208) and re-evaluated their taxonomic position. These isolates were previously provisionally named 'Candidatus Spironema culicis' based on partial 16S rRNA analysis 1. Our working hypothesis was that these isolates belong to a new genus that is part of the family Spirochaetaceae Swellengrebel 1907. Analyses of conserved proteins and phylogenies confirmed their relationship amongst each other and to other taxa; and suggest that these isolates form indeed a new genus containing several new species.
Extended abstract of a paper presented at MC 2007, 33rd DGE Conference in Saarbrücken, Germany, S... more Extended abstract of a paper presented at MC 2007, 33rd DGE Conference in Saarbrücken, Germany, September 2 – September 7, 2007
Lyme disease (LD) spirochetes are well known to be able to disseminate into the tissues of infect... more Lyme disease (LD) spirochetes are well known to be able to disseminate into the tissues of infected hosts, including humans. The diverse strategies used by spirochetes to avoid the host immune system and persist in the host include active immune suppression, induction of immune tolerance, phase and antigenic variation, intracellular seclusion, and, importantly, incursion into immune privileged sites such as the brain. Invasion of immune privileged sites, like the brain allows the spirochetes not only escape from the host immune system but also can reduce the efficacy of antibiotic therapy. Here we present a case of the detection of DNA of spirochetes from Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex from multiple loci of LD patient’s post-mortem brain. The presence of co-infection with Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto and Borrelia garinii in LD patient’s brain was confirmed by PCR. The presence of atypical spirochete morphology was confirmed by immunohistochemistry of the brain samples...
We report for the first time the use of two live-cell imaging agents from the group of luminescen... more We report for the first time the use of two live-cell imaging agents from the group of luminescent transition metal complexes (IRAZOLVE-MITO and REZOLVE-ER) as cathodoluminescent probes. This first experimental demonstration shows the application of both probes for the identification of cellular structures at the nanoscale and near the native state directly in the cryo-scanning electron microscope. This approach can potentially be applied to correlative and multimodal approaches and used to target specific regions within vitrified samples at low electron beam energies.
SUMMARYBarium (Ba) and strontium (Sr) are often used as proxies for the reconstruction of past ma... more SUMMARYBarium (Ba) and strontium (Sr) are often used as proxies for the reconstruction of past marine productivity and global climate. The ability to accumulate Ba2+ and Sr2+ in the form of crystals is rare among eukaryotes. Here we report that unicellular heterotrophs called diplonemids (Euglenozoa), one of the most abundant groups of marine planktonic protists, accumulate conspicuous amounts of these trace elements in the form of intracellular barite (BaSO4) and celestite (SrSO4) crystals, in concentrations greater than in other known Ba/Sr-accumulating organisms. Moreover, these flagellates can uptake Sr2+ exclusively or together with Ba2+ and form (Ba,Sr)SO4. One species, Namystinia karyoxenos, is naturally capable of intracellular accumulation of Ba2+ and Sr2+ 42,000 and 10,000 times relative to the surrounding medium. Altering the amounts of both elements in the medium resulted in corresponding changes in the quantity and composition of crystals. Planktonic copepods fed with d...
Kinesins are motor proteins found in all eukaryotic lineages that move along microtubules to medi... more Kinesins are motor proteins found in all eukaryotic lineages that move along microtubules to mediate cellular processes such as mitosis and intracellular transport. In trypanosomatids, the kinesin superfamily has undergone a prominent expansion, resulting in one of the most diverse kinesin repertoires that includes the two kinetoplastid‐restricted families X1 and X2. Here, we characterize in Trypanosoma brucei TbKifX2A, an orphaned X2 kinesin. TbKifX2A tightly interacts with TbPH1, a kinesin‐like protein with a likely inactive motor domain, a rarely reported occurrence. Both TbKifX2A and TbPH1 localize to the microtubule quartet (MtQ), a characteristic but poorly understood cytoskeletal structure that wraps around the flagellar pocket as it extends to the cell body anterior. The proximal proteome of TbPH1 revealed two other interacting proteins, the flagellar pocket protein FP45 and intriguingly another X2 kinesin, TbKifX2C. Simultaneous ablation of TbKifX2A/TbPH1 results in the dep...
Extended abstract of a paper presented at MC 2007, 33rd DGE Conference in Saarbrücken, Germany, S... more Extended abstract of a paper presented at MC 2007, 33rd DGE Conference in Saarbrücken, Germany, September 2 – September 7, 2007
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