The A.D. 1803 and 1934 Bihar-Nepal border earthquake affected Indo-Gangetic Plain with evidences ... more The A.D. 1803 and 1934 Bihar-Nepal border earthquake affected Indo-Gangetic Plain with evidences of liquefaction in cities like Patna, Varanasi, Agra, and Delhi in historical past. Recent strong shaking all along the Indo-Gangetic Plains and seismic induced damage to the buildings in Bihar during Mw 7.8 Gorkha earthquake raises the concern for site specific liquefaction potential estimation of alluvial soils. Cyclic triaxial tests were conducted on soil samples from Kanpur, Allahabad, Patna city to know the cyclic behavior, estimate the dynamic soil properties and the effect of relative density, confining pressure and frequency of loading on the cyclic behavior of the soil tested. The test results indicate the cyclic strength of Allahabad soil is less than Patna and Kanpur soil. The Allahabad soil with 80% sand, 10% silt and clay each is more prone to liquefaction than Kanpur soil (82% silt, 16% clay and 2% sand) and Patna soil (10% Kankar, 95% sand, 5% silt). This study indicates s...
The study presents hydrodynamic mechanism of boulder transportation along the rocky coastal margi... more The study presents hydrodynamic mechanism of boulder transportation along the rocky coastal margins with a case study from the eastern flank of the Arabian Sea. Limestone blocks ranging in size from small (1.3, 0.95, 0.35) m to large (2.9, 1.68, 0.5)m scattered over a rocky platform were considered for the approximation of wave energy. The boulders with prominent imbrications indicative of flow direction were used to assess the minimum flow velocity to initiate boulder transport during extreme wave events. The irregular /polyhedral boulders, previously a part of sub-aerially exposed jointed limestone strata, were detached and transported from the rocky coastal platform under the impact of high energy waves. We calculated velocity and height for dynamic waves required to transport boulders onshore using boulder dimensions i.e., length (a-axis), width (b-axis), and height (c-axis). By applying hydrodynamic equations, it is deduced that the average wave velocity required to transport b...
India is a vast country that is growing even faster. Particularly over the last decade, there has... more India is a vast country that is growing even faster. Particularly over the last decade, there has been a sudden spurt in the construction activity in the country, especially in the large low-to-moderate seismic regions of the country. But, no systems are in place to regulate these massive constructions to ensure seismic safety. This paper raises the challenges in the current practice and provides measures to overcome them. In particular, the paper argues for separate provisions for the design and construction of structures in low-tomoderate seismic regions.
Tirur village located ~2.5 km inland along the western coast of Andaman Island experienced margin... more Tirur village located ~2.5 km inland along the western coast of Andaman Island experienced marginal subsidence during the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman (Mw 9.3) earthquake, causing inundation by tidal waters. Observations made in 2005, 2009, 2010 and 2011 revealed reduction in inundation limits of the tidal-marsh. Geomorphic and GPS observations suggest that the area experienced gradual but faster uplift during post 2004 till 2009, followed by gradual uplift with slower pace, indicating process of post-seismic relaxation. Shallow stratigraphic records exhibit four earthquakes including the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake. Unit a massive clayey-silt suggests a deeper environment before 3500 yr BP. Overlying thick peat (Unit b) represents tidal-marsh or wetland, suggesting emergence at or above mean sea-level during Event-I, this uplift was during 3022-3500 yr BP (BCE 1897-1369). Unit c medium-coarse sand with prominent bi-directional structures, and sharp contact with underlying Unit b, indic...
The Kachchh falls under seismically active zone-V outside the Himalayan seismic belt, and forms a... more The Kachchh falls under seismically active zone-V outside the Himalayan seismic belt, and forms a part of Stable Continental Region (SCR). In the span of 50 years the Kachchh has experienced two large magnitude earthquakes, i.e. the July 21, 1956 Anjar with ML 7 and the 2001 event with Mw 7.6. No coseismic surface rupture was associated with the Bhuj earthquake, suggests movement along a blind thrust has resulted into extensive lateral spreading of water saturated near surface soil horizon giving rise to formation of numerous EW striking extensional cracks or normal faults and the longitudinal pressure ridges in the epicentral area around Budharmora and Morgar villages. Liquefaction in the low-lying areas comprising fine sediments was the common phenomenon observed during this earthquake. By satellite photo interpretation several traces of active faults were identified for the first time occurring in the pediment zones along the northern margins of Katrol Hill Range and Northern Hil...
The Kachchh region has suffered from at least four damaging moderate to large earthquakes since t... more The Kachchh region has suffered from at least four damaging moderate to large earthquakes since the 17th century. However, none of these earthquakes except the 1819 Allah Bund earthquake accompanied surface rupture. Even the recent 2001 Bhuj earthquake with Mw7.6 occurred on a blind fault. Several faults in the Kachchh viz. the Island Belt Fault, the Kachchh Mainland Fault (KMF), and the Katrol Hill Fault were suggested to be active during Late Quaternary time by previous studies. But there is no such supportive evidence available in the historical documents; also none of recent studies except ours (Morino et al., 2007, Malik et al., 2008, and Morino et al., 2008) reported ground truth that these fault are active. We in our earlier paper reported faulting in Late Pleistocene to Holocene age sediment near the Lodai Village along the KMF. To confirm further active faulting along the KMF, paleoseismic investigation near Jhura Village about 30 km west of Lodai revealed an active fault d...
The thrust top intermontane basins that are located to the east of the Hazara-Kashmir syntaxis (H... more The thrust top intermontane basins that are located to the east of the Hazara-Kashmir syntaxis (HKS) in NW Himalaya are ∼NW-SE oriented and run parallel to the strike of the major Himalayan thrusts, which is in contrast to the similar basins that lie at the west of HKS (e.g., Peshawar basin). Although these basins are similar in age yet their structural orientation differs, which has not been previously investigated in much details. Therefore, here we investigate the structural details using the 30m shuttle radar topography, seismicity, earthquake centroid moment tensors solutions, previously published works, and geological fieldwork at Anantnag, Kashmir, where bedrock geology and Plio-Pleistocene to Holocene sediments are mapped. The three tectonic model for the formation of Kashmir basin are investigated and new data are produced to refine the existing knowledge on the formation of Kashmir and Peshawar basins. Our results establish that Kashmir basin is definitely neither a pull-apart basin nor a rift basin, and we reinforce that the basin can be formed in a piggyback structural style. We demonstrate that intermontane basins on either side of the HKS have rotated during their evolutionary journey. The estimated >45°clockwise rotation of Kashmir basin is in contract to the <45°anticlockwise rotation of the Peshawar basin, and this rotation coincides with the emergence of the >120 km long left-lateral strike-slip fault, the Jhelum fault (JF), which has dominantly left-lateral strike-slip movement at north, and oblique in south. We show that the JF largely controls the formation rotation and the present configuration of regions on either side of the HKS. The published paleomagnetic data supports our results and show that basin formation, lateral extent, geometry, and rotation are controlled by faulting where the emergence of the main boundary thrust fault system seems to have largely controlled the formation and lateral extent of the Kashmir basin, while as the JF has contributed toward the translation, rotation and present structural configuration of the intermontane basins in the region.
This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the ad... more This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
Kachchh of western India, considered to be a Stable Continental Region (SCR), has experienced sev... more Kachchh of western India, considered to be a Stable Continental Region (SCR), has experienced several large magnitude earthquakes in recent past, viz. 1668 CE (M w 7.0), 1819 CE (M w 7.8), 1845 CE (M w 6.3), 1956 CE (M w 6.0), and 2001 CE (M w 7.7). Our present study emphasizes on identifying archaeoseismic signatures from the ruins of an ancient city built by Lakho Punarvo of Samma Dynasty around 1000 CE found near the Manjal Town of Kachchh. Among the ruins, Punvareshwar Temple exhibits penetrative fractures within masonry blocks, recycled anomalous elements, displaced blocks and lateral shift of superstructure. Vadi Medi, a pillared structure, shown varied orientation of intact columns, displaced blocks, fallen and oriented columns. The nature of these signatures exhibits the influence of seismic phenomena which can be categorized as off-fault damage caused by strong seismic shaking. In order to quantify the ground shaking experienced by the structures, seismic hazard analysis which considers all the possible potential seismic sources within a radius of 100 km has been employed. It is identified from the analysis that the damage incurred to the structures is due to the strong ground acceleration experienced during the 1819 and 2001 earthquakes and the recurrence of similar peak ground acceleration is estimated as 700-750 and 500-600 years respectively.
This thematic collection contains eight papers mostly presented at the 2016 AOGS meeting in Beiji... more This thematic collection contains eight papers mostly presented at the 2016 AOGS meeting in Beijing. Four papers describe historical earthquake studies in Europe, Japan, and China; one paper uses modern instrumental data to examine the effect of giant earthquakes on the seismicity rate; and three papers describe paleoseismological studies using tsunami deposit in Japan, marine terraces in Philippines, and active faults in Himalayas. Hammerl (Geosci Lett 4:7, 2017) introduced historical seismological studies in Austria, starting from methodology which is state of the art in most European countries, followed by a case study for an earthquake of July 17, 1670 in Tyrol. Albini and Rovida (Geosci Lett 3:30, 2016) examined 114 historical records for the earthquake on April 6, 1667 on the east coast of the Adriatic Sea, compiled 37 Macroseismic Data Points, and estimated the epicenter and the size of the earthquake. Matsu'ura (Geosci Lett 4:3, 2017) summarized historical earthquake studies in Japan which resulted in about 8700 Intensity Data Points, assigned epicenters for 214 earthquakes between AD 599 and 1872, and estimated focal depth and magnitudes for 134 events. Wang et al. (Geosci Lett 4:4, 2017) introduced historical seismology in China, where historical earthquake archives include about 15,000 sources, and parametric catalogs include about 1000 historical earthquakes between 2300 BC and AD 1911. Ishibe et al. (Geosci Lett 4:5, 2017) tested the Coulomb stress triggering hypothesis for three giant (M~9) earthquakes that occurred in recent years, and found that at least the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman and 2011 Tohoku earthquakes caused the seismicity rate change. Ishimura (2017) re-estimated the ages of 11 tsunami deposits in the last 4000 years along the Sanriku coast of northern Japan and found that the average recurrence interval of those tsunamis as 350-390 years. Ramos et al. (2017) studied ~ 1000-year-old marine terraces on the west coast of Luzon Island, Philippines, and interpreted that coral boulder on top of the terrace was transported by the tsunami. Arora and Malik (Geosci Lett 4:19, 2017) compiled the paleoseismological data from trenches excavated along the Himalaya arc and argued that grouping of multiple events occurring within several decades would lead to an overestimation of seismic hazard scenario.
As many as seven tsunamis from the past 8000 years are evidenced by sand sheets that rest on buri... more As many as seven tsunamis from the past 8000 years are evidenced by sand sheets that rest on buried wetland soils at Badabalu, southern Andaman Island, along northern part of the fault rupture of the giant 2004 Aceh-Andaman earthquake. The uppermost of these deposits represents the 2004 tsunami. Underlying deposits likely correspond to historical tsunamis of 1881, 1762, and 1679 CE, and provide evidence for prehistoric tsunamis in 1300–1400 CE, in 2000–3000 and 3020–1780 BCE, and before 5600–5300 BCE. The sequence includes an unexplained hiatus of two or three millennia ending around 1400 CE, which could be attributed to accelerated erosion due to Relative Sea-Level (RSL) fall at ~3500 BP. A tsunami in 1300–1400, comparable to the one in 2004, was previously identified geologically on other Indian Ocean shores. The tsunamis assigned to 1679, 1762, and 1881, by contrast, were more nearly confined to the northeast Indian Ocean. Sources have not been determined for the three earliest o...
The Vigukot Fort is in ruins lying along the northern fringe of the Great Rann of Kachchh, Gujara... more The Vigukot Fort is in ruins lying along the northern fringe of the Great Rann of Kachchh, Gujarat, India This settlement is located on the left bank of the palaeochannel of the Nara river-a tributary of River Indus. We conducted Real Time Kinematics and Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) surveys for surface and subsurface. The digital elevation model (DEM) reveals an average elevation ranging from 2 to 4 m from mean sea-level. Two elevated areas: EA1 (site 1) and EA2 (site 2) represent residential areas in the township. EA1 located on higher ground (3-4 m amsl) in the eastern portion comprised of a housing complex of larger dimensions. Two rooms with an area of 650 and 250 sq. ft respectively, possibly indicative of living rooms attached with a courtyard suggest that highranked authorities occupied this portion of the township. EA2 with low-elevation (3 m amsl) marked by a smaller residential complex may be indicative of a trade complex along the western flank of the township. On the basis of 3D GPR survey we infer two levels of settlement at EA1 and one level of settlement at EA2. EA1 remained as a residential complex as reflected from both the levels, whereas EA2 was a trading complex close to the main gateway G1. Probably two scenarios prevailed: (1) Both areas flourished likewise at the first level and might have got disturbed by an earthquake; later EA1 may have been reoccupied while EA2 was left to be an open trading complex at the second level (recent). (2) During the first level of occupancy, EA1 was probably a residential complex (having enclosed walls), and EA2 might be the trading complex (with partially enclosed walls lying opposite to G1). Both the areas were affected during the disaster, and the second level of occupancy EA1 was rebuilt and occupied, whereas EA2 was used without renovation. Moreover, the 1819 earthquake probably destroyed both the areas completely and led to their abandonment.
The Himalaya is one of the most seismically active regions of the world. The occurrence of severa... more The Himalaya is one of the most seismically active regions of the world. The occurrence of several large magnitude earthquakes viz. 1905 Kangra earthquake (Mw 7.8), 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquake (Mw 8.2), 1950 Assam earthquake (Mw 8.4), 2005 Kashmir (Mw 7.6), and 2015 Gorkha (Mw 7.8) are the testimony to ongoing tectonic activity. In the last few decades, tremendous efforts have been made along the Himalayan arc to understand the patterns of earthquake occurrences, size, extent, and return periods. Some of the large magnitude earthquakes produced surface rupture, while some remained blind. Furthermore, due to the incompleteness of the earthquake catalogue, a very few events can be correlated with medieval earthquakes. Based on the existing paleoseismic data certainly, there exists a complexity to precisely determine the extent of surface rupture of these earthquakes and also for those events, which occurred during historic times. In this paper, we have compiled the paleo-seismological data and recalibrated the radiocarbon ages from the trenches excavated by previous workers along the entire Himalaya and compared earthquake scenario with the past. Our studies suggest that there were multiple earthquake events with overlapping surface ruptures in small patches with an average rupture length of ~300 km limiting Mw 7.8-8.0 for the Himalayan arc, rather than two or three giant earthquakes rupturing the whole front. It has been identified that the large magnitude Himalayan earthquakes, such as 1905 Kangra, 1934 Bihar-Nepal, and 1950 Assam, that have occurred within a time frame of 45 years. Now, if these events are dated, there is a high possibility that within the range of ±50 years, they may be considered as the remnant of one giant earthquake rupturing the entire Himalayan arc. Therefore, leading to an overestimation of seismic hazard scenario in Himalaya.
Abstract The importance of understanding earthquake sources in India and Nepal was underscored by... more Abstract The importance of understanding earthquake sources in India and Nepal was underscored by the disastrous 2015 earthquakes of 25 April Gorkha (Mw 7.8) and 12 May Kodari (Mw 7.3, aftershock) in Nepal. The Kumaon-Garhwal segment experienced strong earthquakes in CE 1505 and CE 1803, probably along the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT). Of these, the CE 1505 was the greatest earthquake reported from the region in historical chronicles. However, no surface ruptures related to either of 1505 or 1803 have been identified from the Kumaon-Garhwal segment, and an ambiguity remained about their ruptures dispite recent reports of CE 1505 surface rupture in Western Nepal. We used high-resolution satellite (CARTOSAT-1) data for mapping active fault traces and carried out paleoseismic studies to identify paleo-earthquakes along the HFT. A trench excavated across the Kaladungi Fault (KF), a branching fault of HFT, revealed evidence of at least three earthquakes. Event I (the oldest) occurred between BCE 467 and CE 570; Event II occurred between CE 1294–1587. We infer that the Event II was the most likely historically-reported, great Himalayan earthquake of CE 1505. Event III occurred between CE 1750–1932, and may represent the large magnitude CE 1803 (7.5 > Mw
Two field campaigns (March 2005 and March 2006) for measurements of biological indicators and eye... more Two field campaigns (March 2005 and March 2006) for measurements of biological indicators and eyewitness accounts confirm that large coseismic and postseismic surface deformation occurred over the Andaman Islands in association with the 2004 Sumatra‐Andaman earthquake. Amount of uplift was as large as 1.3 m in the islands off NW coast, and decreased to ESE with a zone of subsidence in the SE Andaman. The coseismic deformation did not generate large seismic waves or tsunamis, indicating that slip was much slower than that off Sumatra. The coseismic uplift was followed by postseismic subsidence, which was evidenced by local residents to have occurred within two months after the earthquake. A simple dislocation model explains the deformation pattern by a coseismic rupture (50 km wide with its down‐dip limit 130 km east of the trench axis) followed by an up‐dip propagation of the rupture front for about 10 km.
Active Faulting and Deformation of Quaternary Landform Sub-Himalaya, India Landforms developed ac... more Active Faulting and Deformation of Quaternary Landform Sub-Himalaya, India Landforms developed across terrain defining boundary the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) have imprints of recent tectonic activity. Depositional landforms such as colluvial fan bear signatures of later phases of tectonic activity in the form of faulting of colluvial fan deposits and development of fault scarps. Tectonic geomorphology applied to the MBT zone suggests recent subsurface activity along the MBT and its splay thrusts. Present day tectonic activity of MBT is indicated by ground creeping, thrusting of Lower Siwalik rocks over recent colluvial fan deposit, aligning of series of lakes along splay faults and laterally along a fault, deflected streams, fault scarps and waterfalls. In the present paper we are addressing the tectonic situation in the foothill region of southeastern Kumaun Sub-Himalaya, India based on detailed field work carried out in the region which brought forward some outstanding morphotect...
The A.D. 1803 and 1934 Bihar-Nepal border earthquake affected Indo-Gangetic Plain with evidences ... more The A.D. 1803 and 1934 Bihar-Nepal border earthquake affected Indo-Gangetic Plain with evidences of liquefaction in cities like Patna, Varanasi, Agra, and Delhi in historical past. Recent strong shaking all along the Indo-Gangetic Plains and seismic induced damage to the buildings in Bihar during Mw 7.8 Gorkha earthquake raises the concern for site specific liquefaction potential estimation of alluvial soils. Cyclic triaxial tests were conducted on soil samples from Kanpur, Allahabad, Patna city to know the cyclic behavior, estimate the dynamic soil properties and the effect of relative density, confining pressure and frequency of loading on the cyclic behavior of the soil tested. The test results indicate the cyclic strength of Allahabad soil is less than Patna and Kanpur soil. The Allahabad soil with 80% sand, 10% silt and clay each is more prone to liquefaction than Kanpur soil (82% silt, 16% clay and 2% sand) and Patna soil (10% Kankar, 95% sand, 5% silt). This study indicates s...
The study presents hydrodynamic mechanism of boulder transportation along the rocky coastal margi... more The study presents hydrodynamic mechanism of boulder transportation along the rocky coastal margins with a case study from the eastern flank of the Arabian Sea. Limestone blocks ranging in size from small (1.3, 0.95, 0.35) m to large (2.9, 1.68, 0.5)m scattered over a rocky platform were considered for the approximation of wave energy. The boulders with prominent imbrications indicative of flow direction were used to assess the minimum flow velocity to initiate boulder transport during extreme wave events. The irregular /polyhedral boulders, previously a part of sub-aerially exposed jointed limestone strata, were detached and transported from the rocky coastal platform under the impact of high energy waves. We calculated velocity and height for dynamic waves required to transport boulders onshore using boulder dimensions i.e., length (a-axis), width (b-axis), and height (c-axis). By applying hydrodynamic equations, it is deduced that the average wave velocity required to transport b...
India is a vast country that is growing even faster. Particularly over the last decade, there has... more India is a vast country that is growing even faster. Particularly over the last decade, there has been a sudden spurt in the construction activity in the country, especially in the large low-to-moderate seismic regions of the country. But, no systems are in place to regulate these massive constructions to ensure seismic safety. This paper raises the challenges in the current practice and provides measures to overcome them. In particular, the paper argues for separate provisions for the design and construction of structures in low-tomoderate seismic regions.
Tirur village located ~2.5 km inland along the western coast of Andaman Island experienced margin... more Tirur village located ~2.5 km inland along the western coast of Andaman Island experienced marginal subsidence during the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman (Mw 9.3) earthquake, causing inundation by tidal waters. Observations made in 2005, 2009, 2010 and 2011 revealed reduction in inundation limits of the tidal-marsh. Geomorphic and GPS observations suggest that the area experienced gradual but faster uplift during post 2004 till 2009, followed by gradual uplift with slower pace, indicating process of post-seismic relaxation. Shallow stratigraphic records exhibit four earthquakes including the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake. Unit a massive clayey-silt suggests a deeper environment before 3500 yr BP. Overlying thick peat (Unit b) represents tidal-marsh or wetland, suggesting emergence at or above mean sea-level during Event-I, this uplift was during 3022-3500 yr BP (BCE 1897-1369). Unit c medium-coarse sand with prominent bi-directional structures, and sharp contact with underlying Unit b, indic...
The Kachchh falls under seismically active zone-V outside the Himalayan seismic belt, and forms a... more The Kachchh falls under seismically active zone-V outside the Himalayan seismic belt, and forms a part of Stable Continental Region (SCR). In the span of 50 years the Kachchh has experienced two large magnitude earthquakes, i.e. the July 21, 1956 Anjar with ML 7 and the 2001 event with Mw 7.6. No coseismic surface rupture was associated with the Bhuj earthquake, suggests movement along a blind thrust has resulted into extensive lateral spreading of water saturated near surface soil horizon giving rise to formation of numerous EW striking extensional cracks or normal faults and the longitudinal pressure ridges in the epicentral area around Budharmora and Morgar villages. Liquefaction in the low-lying areas comprising fine sediments was the common phenomenon observed during this earthquake. By satellite photo interpretation several traces of active faults were identified for the first time occurring in the pediment zones along the northern margins of Katrol Hill Range and Northern Hil...
The Kachchh region has suffered from at least four damaging moderate to large earthquakes since t... more The Kachchh region has suffered from at least four damaging moderate to large earthquakes since the 17th century. However, none of these earthquakes except the 1819 Allah Bund earthquake accompanied surface rupture. Even the recent 2001 Bhuj earthquake with Mw7.6 occurred on a blind fault. Several faults in the Kachchh viz. the Island Belt Fault, the Kachchh Mainland Fault (KMF), and the Katrol Hill Fault were suggested to be active during Late Quaternary time by previous studies. But there is no such supportive evidence available in the historical documents; also none of recent studies except ours (Morino et al., 2007, Malik et al., 2008, and Morino et al., 2008) reported ground truth that these fault are active. We in our earlier paper reported faulting in Late Pleistocene to Holocene age sediment near the Lodai Village along the KMF. To confirm further active faulting along the KMF, paleoseismic investigation near Jhura Village about 30 km west of Lodai revealed an active fault d...
The thrust top intermontane basins that are located to the east of the Hazara-Kashmir syntaxis (H... more The thrust top intermontane basins that are located to the east of the Hazara-Kashmir syntaxis (HKS) in NW Himalaya are ∼NW-SE oriented and run parallel to the strike of the major Himalayan thrusts, which is in contrast to the similar basins that lie at the west of HKS (e.g., Peshawar basin). Although these basins are similar in age yet their structural orientation differs, which has not been previously investigated in much details. Therefore, here we investigate the structural details using the 30m shuttle radar topography, seismicity, earthquake centroid moment tensors solutions, previously published works, and geological fieldwork at Anantnag, Kashmir, where bedrock geology and Plio-Pleistocene to Holocene sediments are mapped. The three tectonic model for the formation of Kashmir basin are investigated and new data are produced to refine the existing knowledge on the formation of Kashmir and Peshawar basins. Our results establish that Kashmir basin is definitely neither a pull-apart basin nor a rift basin, and we reinforce that the basin can be formed in a piggyback structural style. We demonstrate that intermontane basins on either side of the HKS have rotated during their evolutionary journey. The estimated >45°clockwise rotation of Kashmir basin is in contract to the <45°anticlockwise rotation of the Peshawar basin, and this rotation coincides with the emergence of the >120 km long left-lateral strike-slip fault, the Jhelum fault (JF), which has dominantly left-lateral strike-slip movement at north, and oblique in south. We show that the JF largely controls the formation rotation and the present configuration of regions on either side of the HKS. The published paleomagnetic data supports our results and show that basin formation, lateral extent, geometry, and rotation are controlled by faulting where the emergence of the main boundary thrust fault system seems to have largely controlled the formation and lateral extent of the Kashmir basin, while as the JF has contributed toward the translation, rotation and present structural configuration of the intermontane basins in the region.
This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the ad... more This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
Kachchh of western India, considered to be a Stable Continental Region (SCR), has experienced sev... more Kachchh of western India, considered to be a Stable Continental Region (SCR), has experienced several large magnitude earthquakes in recent past, viz. 1668 CE (M w 7.0), 1819 CE (M w 7.8), 1845 CE (M w 6.3), 1956 CE (M w 6.0), and 2001 CE (M w 7.7). Our present study emphasizes on identifying archaeoseismic signatures from the ruins of an ancient city built by Lakho Punarvo of Samma Dynasty around 1000 CE found near the Manjal Town of Kachchh. Among the ruins, Punvareshwar Temple exhibits penetrative fractures within masonry blocks, recycled anomalous elements, displaced blocks and lateral shift of superstructure. Vadi Medi, a pillared structure, shown varied orientation of intact columns, displaced blocks, fallen and oriented columns. The nature of these signatures exhibits the influence of seismic phenomena which can be categorized as off-fault damage caused by strong seismic shaking. In order to quantify the ground shaking experienced by the structures, seismic hazard analysis which considers all the possible potential seismic sources within a radius of 100 km has been employed. It is identified from the analysis that the damage incurred to the structures is due to the strong ground acceleration experienced during the 1819 and 2001 earthquakes and the recurrence of similar peak ground acceleration is estimated as 700-750 and 500-600 years respectively.
This thematic collection contains eight papers mostly presented at the 2016 AOGS meeting in Beiji... more This thematic collection contains eight papers mostly presented at the 2016 AOGS meeting in Beijing. Four papers describe historical earthquake studies in Europe, Japan, and China; one paper uses modern instrumental data to examine the effect of giant earthquakes on the seismicity rate; and three papers describe paleoseismological studies using tsunami deposit in Japan, marine terraces in Philippines, and active faults in Himalayas. Hammerl (Geosci Lett 4:7, 2017) introduced historical seismological studies in Austria, starting from methodology which is state of the art in most European countries, followed by a case study for an earthquake of July 17, 1670 in Tyrol. Albini and Rovida (Geosci Lett 3:30, 2016) examined 114 historical records for the earthquake on April 6, 1667 on the east coast of the Adriatic Sea, compiled 37 Macroseismic Data Points, and estimated the epicenter and the size of the earthquake. Matsu'ura (Geosci Lett 4:3, 2017) summarized historical earthquake studies in Japan which resulted in about 8700 Intensity Data Points, assigned epicenters for 214 earthquakes between AD 599 and 1872, and estimated focal depth and magnitudes for 134 events. Wang et al. (Geosci Lett 4:4, 2017) introduced historical seismology in China, where historical earthquake archives include about 15,000 sources, and parametric catalogs include about 1000 historical earthquakes between 2300 BC and AD 1911. Ishibe et al. (Geosci Lett 4:5, 2017) tested the Coulomb stress triggering hypothesis for three giant (M~9) earthquakes that occurred in recent years, and found that at least the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman and 2011 Tohoku earthquakes caused the seismicity rate change. Ishimura (2017) re-estimated the ages of 11 tsunami deposits in the last 4000 years along the Sanriku coast of northern Japan and found that the average recurrence interval of those tsunamis as 350-390 years. Ramos et al. (2017) studied ~ 1000-year-old marine terraces on the west coast of Luzon Island, Philippines, and interpreted that coral boulder on top of the terrace was transported by the tsunami. Arora and Malik (Geosci Lett 4:19, 2017) compiled the paleoseismological data from trenches excavated along the Himalaya arc and argued that grouping of multiple events occurring within several decades would lead to an overestimation of seismic hazard scenario.
As many as seven tsunamis from the past 8000 years are evidenced by sand sheets that rest on buri... more As many as seven tsunamis from the past 8000 years are evidenced by sand sheets that rest on buried wetland soils at Badabalu, southern Andaman Island, along northern part of the fault rupture of the giant 2004 Aceh-Andaman earthquake. The uppermost of these deposits represents the 2004 tsunami. Underlying deposits likely correspond to historical tsunamis of 1881, 1762, and 1679 CE, and provide evidence for prehistoric tsunamis in 1300–1400 CE, in 2000–3000 and 3020–1780 BCE, and before 5600–5300 BCE. The sequence includes an unexplained hiatus of two or three millennia ending around 1400 CE, which could be attributed to accelerated erosion due to Relative Sea-Level (RSL) fall at ~3500 BP. A tsunami in 1300–1400, comparable to the one in 2004, was previously identified geologically on other Indian Ocean shores. The tsunamis assigned to 1679, 1762, and 1881, by contrast, were more nearly confined to the northeast Indian Ocean. Sources have not been determined for the three earliest o...
The Vigukot Fort is in ruins lying along the northern fringe of the Great Rann of Kachchh, Gujara... more The Vigukot Fort is in ruins lying along the northern fringe of the Great Rann of Kachchh, Gujarat, India This settlement is located on the left bank of the palaeochannel of the Nara river-a tributary of River Indus. We conducted Real Time Kinematics and Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) surveys for surface and subsurface. The digital elevation model (DEM) reveals an average elevation ranging from 2 to 4 m from mean sea-level. Two elevated areas: EA1 (site 1) and EA2 (site 2) represent residential areas in the township. EA1 located on higher ground (3-4 m amsl) in the eastern portion comprised of a housing complex of larger dimensions. Two rooms with an area of 650 and 250 sq. ft respectively, possibly indicative of living rooms attached with a courtyard suggest that highranked authorities occupied this portion of the township. EA2 with low-elevation (3 m amsl) marked by a smaller residential complex may be indicative of a trade complex along the western flank of the township. On the basis of 3D GPR survey we infer two levels of settlement at EA1 and one level of settlement at EA2. EA1 remained as a residential complex as reflected from both the levels, whereas EA2 was a trading complex close to the main gateway G1. Probably two scenarios prevailed: (1) Both areas flourished likewise at the first level and might have got disturbed by an earthquake; later EA1 may have been reoccupied while EA2 was left to be an open trading complex at the second level (recent). (2) During the first level of occupancy, EA1 was probably a residential complex (having enclosed walls), and EA2 might be the trading complex (with partially enclosed walls lying opposite to G1). Both the areas were affected during the disaster, and the second level of occupancy EA1 was rebuilt and occupied, whereas EA2 was used without renovation. Moreover, the 1819 earthquake probably destroyed both the areas completely and led to their abandonment.
The Himalaya is one of the most seismically active regions of the world. The occurrence of severa... more The Himalaya is one of the most seismically active regions of the world. The occurrence of several large magnitude earthquakes viz. 1905 Kangra earthquake (Mw 7.8), 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquake (Mw 8.2), 1950 Assam earthquake (Mw 8.4), 2005 Kashmir (Mw 7.6), and 2015 Gorkha (Mw 7.8) are the testimony to ongoing tectonic activity. In the last few decades, tremendous efforts have been made along the Himalayan arc to understand the patterns of earthquake occurrences, size, extent, and return periods. Some of the large magnitude earthquakes produced surface rupture, while some remained blind. Furthermore, due to the incompleteness of the earthquake catalogue, a very few events can be correlated with medieval earthquakes. Based on the existing paleoseismic data certainly, there exists a complexity to precisely determine the extent of surface rupture of these earthquakes and also for those events, which occurred during historic times. In this paper, we have compiled the paleo-seismological data and recalibrated the radiocarbon ages from the trenches excavated by previous workers along the entire Himalaya and compared earthquake scenario with the past. Our studies suggest that there were multiple earthquake events with overlapping surface ruptures in small patches with an average rupture length of ~300 km limiting Mw 7.8-8.0 for the Himalayan arc, rather than two or three giant earthquakes rupturing the whole front. It has been identified that the large magnitude Himalayan earthquakes, such as 1905 Kangra, 1934 Bihar-Nepal, and 1950 Assam, that have occurred within a time frame of 45 years. Now, if these events are dated, there is a high possibility that within the range of ±50 years, they may be considered as the remnant of one giant earthquake rupturing the entire Himalayan arc. Therefore, leading to an overestimation of seismic hazard scenario in Himalaya.
Abstract The importance of understanding earthquake sources in India and Nepal was underscored by... more Abstract The importance of understanding earthquake sources in India and Nepal was underscored by the disastrous 2015 earthquakes of 25 April Gorkha (Mw 7.8) and 12 May Kodari (Mw 7.3, aftershock) in Nepal. The Kumaon-Garhwal segment experienced strong earthquakes in CE 1505 and CE 1803, probably along the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT). Of these, the CE 1505 was the greatest earthquake reported from the region in historical chronicles. However, no surface ruptures related to either of 1505 or 1803 have been identified from the Kumaon-Garhwal segment, and an ambiguity remained about their ruptures dispite recent reports of CE 1505 surface rupture in Western Nepal. We used high-resolution satellite (CARTOSAT-1) data for mapping active fault traces and carried out paleoseismic studies to identify paleo-earthquakes along the HFT. A trench excavated across the Kaladungi Fault (KF), a branching fault of HFT, revealed evidence of at least three earthquakes. Event I (the oldest) occurred between BCE 467 and CE 570; Event II occurred between CE 1294–1587. We infer that the Event II was the most likely historically-reported, great Himalayan earthquake of CE 1505. Event III occurred between CE 1750–1932, and may represent the large magnitude CE 1803 (7.5 > Mw
Two field campaigns (March 2005 and March 2006) for measurements of biological indicators and eye... more Two field campaigns (March 2005 and March 2006) for measurements of biological indicators and eyewitness accounts confirm that large coseismic and postseismic surface deformation occurred over the Andaman Islands in association with the 2004 Sumatra‐Andaman earthquake. Amount of uplift was as large as 1.3 m in the islands off NW coast, and decreased to ESE with a zone of subsidence in the SE Andaman. The coseismic deformation did not generate large seismic waves or tsunamis, indicating that slip was much slower than that off Sumatra. The coseismic uplift was followed by postseismic subsidence, which was evidenced by local residents to have occurred within two months after the earthquake. A simple dislocation model explains the deformation pattern by a coseismic rupture (50 km wide with its down‐dip limit 130 km east of the trench axis) followed by an up‐dip propagation of the rupture front for about 10 km.
Active Faulting and Deformation of Quaternary Landform Sub-Himalaya, India Landforms developed ac... more Active Faulting and Deformation of Quaternary Landform Sub-Himalaya, India Landforms developed across terrain defining boundary the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) have imprints of recent tectonic activity. Depositional landforms such as colluvial fan bear signatures of later phases of tectonic activity in the form of faulting of colluvial fan deposits and development of fault scarps. Tectonic geomorphology applied to the MBT zone suggests recent subsurface activity along the MBT and its splay thrusts. Present day tectonic activity of MBT is indicated by ground creeping, thrusting of Lower Siwalik rocks over recent colluvial fan deposit, aligning of series of lakes along splay faults and laterally along a fault, deflected streams, fault scarps and waterfalls. In the present paper we are addressing the tectonic situation in the foothill region of southeastern Kumaun Sub-Himalaya, India based on detailed field work carried out in the region which brought forward some outstanding morphotect...
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Papers by Javed Malik