Rural Access and Mobility Project (RAMP). Road program evaluation and development of green econom... more Rural Access and Mobility Project (RAMP). Road program evaluation and development of green economy, community involvement, gender and socio-economics (incl. ESIA Environmental Assessment & Strategy Plans).
Rapid flow within ice streams took place in a broad marginal zone of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet d... more Rapid flow within ice streams took place in a broad marginal zone of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet during deglaciation. Ice streams and interlobate zones have been characterised by analysis of glacial flow patterns, and examination of sedimentary features of interlobate glacial and glaciofluvial deposits. Reconstructed glaciodynamic systems are compared with ice streams of modem ice sheets. Wide interstream areas of inactive ice were left between some adjacent ice streams where they separated during the retreat of the margin. These areas are characterised by morainic hummocks composed of both till and glaciofluvia] sediment, and sections show indications of subglacial deformation. Observations from Fennoscandia suggest that these interstream areas were sites of net accumulation of glacial and glaciofluvial sediment during deglaciation. Glaciofluvial sediment was deposited in subglacial tunnels or cavities simultaneously with till deformation and deposition resulting from subglacial melting. Substantial glaciofluvial complexes were formed in narrow interlobate joints where adjacent ice lobes coalesced. A case study made in southem Finland shows converging flow patterns of two ice lobes and intervening glaciofluvial deposits. Concentration of meltwater in interlobate zones was a consequence of ice-sheet configuration. Thinner ice in interlobate zones caused convergence of supraglacial and subglacial drainage. The crevassed and strain-softened ice may also have allowed surface meltwater to penetrate down to the ice/bed interface close to the ice margin. Steep icevelocity gradients in interlobate zones would have increased subglacial melting rates, and this environment was favourable for establishment of a subglacial drainage network and deposition of glaciofluvial sediment.
The glacial geomorphology of Soviet Karelia was mapped using Landsat satellite imagery. The data ... more The glacial geomorphology of Soviet Karelia was mapped using Landsat satellite imagery. The data of the multispectral scanner were processed using the photographic image enhancement and color combination technique for visual interpretation. Glaciofluvial landforms, streamlined formations, end moraines and hummocky moraine tracts were mapped, along with the type and amount of glacial erosion. As a result of the work, the glaciomorphological data were greatly increased compared with maps available earlier. The direction and strength of the glacial flow and the stages of deglaciation were interpreted on the basis of the maps compiled. Conclusions were drawn as to the thermal regime of the ice sheet and the relations between the glacial dynamics and morphology. During the Allerod Substage, the main direction of the glacial flow was from the northwest, running radially from the Scandinavian mountain range. Later, the direction shifted about 30' more to the west, with the dome be...
This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Pro... more This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Project for Kazakhstan, which improves reforestation, forest fire management, and planting on the dry Aral seabed, and rangelands management, anticipates environmental risks and proposes measures to mitigate them. Likely impacts and compensating measures include restricting traffic to avoid erosion and formation of tracks; using seeds from nearby regions and selecting species based on botanical and soil scientific research, and correctly using fertilizers and watering, and removing dead trees to prevent pest damage; conserving the nutrient capital of sandy soils to maintain productivity; supporting natural regeneration over artificial regeneration, especially in ecological and recreational zones where possible; using hand tools and light machinery in wintertime, and generally minimizing soil disturbance to lessen damage to the topsoil; siting fire prevention lookout towers and access roads,...
This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Pro... more This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Project for Kazakhstan, which improves reforestation, forest fire management, and planting on the dry Aral seabed, and rangelands management, anticipates environmental risks and proposes measures to mitigate them. Likely impacts and compensating measures include restricting traffic to avoid erosion and formation of tracks; using seeds from nearby regions and selecting species based on botanical and soil scientific research, and correctly using fertilizers and watering, and removing dead trees to prevent pest damage; conserving the nutrient capital of sandy soils to maintain productivity; supporting natural regeneration over artificial regeneration, especially in ecological and recreational zones where possible; using hand tools and light machinery in wintertime, and generally minimizing soil disturbance to lessen damage to the topsoil; siting fire prevention lookout towers and access roads,...
Field observations in Central Asia indicate that the climate has been warming and the consequence... more Field observations in Central Asia indicate that the climate has been warming and the consequences of this trend have already been observed. Disasters related to climate change destroy settlements, agricultural land, and infrastructure. Central Asian countries should therefore develop resilience and adapt to climate change. This report shows the results of the research combining field observations with sophisticated satellite-based data and created models to demonstrate the impacts of climate change on the hydrology of the Aral Sea Basin.
This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Pro... more This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Project for Kazakhstan, which improves reforestation, forest fire management, and planting on the dry Aral seabed, and rangelands management, anticipates environmental risks and proposes measures to mitigate them. Likely impacts and compensating measures include restricting traffic to avoid erosion and formation of tracks; using seeds from nearby regions and selecting species based on botanical and soil scientific research, and correctly using fertilizers and watering, and removing dead trees to prevent pest damage; conserving the nutrient capital of sandy soils to maintain productivity; supporting natural regeneration over artificial regeneration, especially in ecological and recreational zones where possible; using hand tools and light machinery in wintertime, and generally minimizing soil disturbance to lessen damage to the topsoil; siting fire prevention lookout towers and access roads,...
This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Pro... more This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Project for Kazakhstan, which improves reforestation, forest fire management, and planting on the dry Aral seabed, and rangelands management, anticipates environmental risks and proposes measures to mitigate them. Likely impacts and compensating measures include restricting traffic to avoid erosion and formation of tracks; using seeds from nearby regions and selecting species based on botanical and soil scientific research, and correctly using fertilizers and watering, and removing dead trees to prevent pest damage; conserving the nutrient capital of sandy soils to maintain productivity; supporting natural regeneration over artificial regeneration, especially in ecological and recreational zones where possible; using hand tools and light machinery in wintertime, and generally minimizing soil disturbance to lessen damage to the topsoil; siting fire prevention lookout towers and access roads,...
This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Pro... more This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Project for Kazakhstan, which improves reforestation, forest fire management, and planting on the dry Aral seabed, and rangelands management, anticipates environmental risks and proposes measures to mitigate them. Likely impacts and compensating measures include restricting traffic to avoid erosion and formation of tracks; using seeds from nearby regions and selecting species based on botanical and soil scientific research, and correctly using fertilizers and watering, and removing dead trees to prevent pest damage; conserving the nutrient capital of sandy soils to maintain productivity; supporting natural regeneration over artificial regeneration, especially in ecological and recreational zones where possible; using hand tools and light machinery in wintertime, and generally minimizing soil disturbance to lessen damage to the topsoil; siting fire prevention lookout towers and access roads,...
This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Pro... more This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Project for Kazakhstan, which improves reforestation, forest fire management, and planting on the dry Aral seabed, and rangelands management, anticipates environmental risks and proposes measures to mitigate them. Likely impacts and compensating measures include restricting traffic to avoid erosion and formation of tracks; using seeds from nearby regions and selecting species based on botanical and soil scientific research, and correctly using fertilizers and watering, and removing dead trees to prevent pest damage; conserving the nutrient capital of sandy soils to maintain productivity; supporting natural regeneration over artificial regeneration, especially in ecological and recreational zones where possible; using hand tools and light machinery in wintertime, and generally minimizing soil disturbance to lessen damage to the topsoil; siting fire prevention lookout towers and access roads,...
This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Pro... more This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Project for Kazakhstan, which improves reforestation, forest fire management, and planting on the dry Aral seabed, and rangelands management, anticipates environmental risks and proposes measures to mitigate them. Likely impacts and compensating measures include restricting traffic to avoid erosion and formation of tracks; using seeds from nearby regions and selecting species based on botanical and soil scientific research, and correctly using fertilizers and watering, and removing dead trees to prevent pest damage; conserving the nutrient capital of sandy soils to maintain productivity; supporting natural regeneration over artificial regeneration, especially in ecological and recreational zones where possible; using hand tools and light machinery in wintertime, and generally minimizing soil disturbance to lessen damage to the topsoil; siting fire prevention lookout towers and access roads,...
The purpose of this toolkit is to provide practical guidance in the monitoring and evaluation of ... more The purpose of this toolkit is to provide practical guidance in the monitoring and evaluation of the environmental and social sustainability of Agricultural and Rural Development (ARD) programs and projects. The primary audience is agriculture and rural project managers, specifically field personnel, communities, client governments, other stakeholders, and World Bank Task Teams. Chapter 2 sets out the conceptual framework by examining the sectoral context of environmental and social sustainability and the resulting implications for project preparation, appraisal and implementation. Chapter 3 takes a closer look at the Bank's M&E requirements based on the results-based framework. Chapter 4 introduces appendix 1, which contains 11 matrices of sample indicators, organized by ARD subsector, of potential environmental and social changes that may be observed at outcome and impact levels as a result of a program/project's being implemented. Chapter 5 introduces appendix 2, which co...
This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Pro... more This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Project for Kazakhstan, which improves reforestation, forest fire management, and planting on the dry Aral seabed, and rangelands management, anticipates environmental risks and proposes measures to mitigate them. Likely impacts and compensating measures include restricting traffic to avoid erosion and formation of tracks; using seeds from nearby regions and selecting species based on botanical and soil scientific research, and correctly using fertilizers and watering, and removing dead trees to prevent pest damage; conserving the nutrient capital of sandy soils to maintain productivity; supporting natural regeneration over artificial regeneration, especially in ecological and recreational zones where possible; using hand tools and light machinery in wintertime, and generally minimizing soil disturbance to lessen damage to the topsoil; siting fire prevention lookout towers and access roads,...
ABSTRACT Satellite images provide unique means of identifying large scale flow-generated lineatio... more ABSTRACT Satellite images provide unique means of identifying large scale flow-generated lineations produced by former ice sheets. They can be interpreted to reconstruct the major elements which make up the integrated, large scale structure of ice sheets: ice divides; ice streams; interstream ridges; ice shelves; calving bays. The evolving form of the European ice sheet during its decay after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) is reconstructed by reference to these components and in the context of a new map showing isochrons of retreat. During the retreat phase in particular the time dependent dynamic evolution of the ice sheet and the pattern of ice stream development are reconstructed.Crossing lineations are widespread. The older ones are suggested to have formed during molten bed phases of ice sheet growth and preserved by frozen bed conditions during the glacial maximum, particularly in areas which lay, during deglaciation, beneath ice divides and inter-ice stream ridges. both areas of slow flow and frozen bed conditions.Four phases of growth (A1 to A4) and five phases of decay (R1 to R5) are used to describe the major climatically and dynamically determined stages in the evolution of the ice sheet through the last glacial cycle. The growth and decay patterns are quite different, and associated with major shifts in the ice divide, reflecting growth from the Fennoscandian mountains and decay away from marine influenced margins.
Satellite images provide unique means of identifying large-scale #ow-generated lineations produce... more Satellite images provide unique means of identifying large-scale #ow-generated lineations produced by former ice sheets. They can be interpreted to reconstruct the major elements which make up the integrated, large-scale structure of ice sheets: ice divides; ice streams; interstream ridges; ice shelves; calving bays. The evolving palaeoglaciological structure of the European ice sheet during its decay from the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) is reconstructed by reference to these components and in the context of a new map showing isochrons of retreat. During the retreat phase in particular the time-dependent dynamic evolution of the ice sheet and the pattern of ice stream development are reconstructed. Crossing lineations are widespread. The older ones are suggested to have formed during molten bed phases of ice sheet growth and preserved by frozen bed conditions during the glacial maximum, particularly in areas which lay, during deglaciation, beneath ice divides and inter-ice stream ridges, both areas of slow #ow and possibly frozen bed conditions. Four phases of growth (A1 to A4) and "ve phases of decay (R1 to R5) are used to describe the major climatically and dynamically determined stages in the evolution of the ice sheet through the last glacial cycle. The growth and decay patterns are quite di!erent and associated with major shifts in the ice divide, re#ecting growth from the Fennoscandian mountains and decay away from marine in#uenced margins. These patterns were determined by the locations of nucleation areas; spatial patterns of climate; and calving at marine margins.The prevalence of streaming within the retreating ice sheet suggests that the mean elevation of the ice sheet was lower than predicted from glaciological models which do not include streaming, and that this might reconcile glaciological models and earth rheology models which infer paleao-ice sheet thickness by inverting sea level data.
Rural Access and Mobility Project (RAMP). Road program evaluation and development of green econom... more Rural Access and Mobility Project (RAMP). Road program evaluation and development of green economy, community involvement, gender and socio-economics (incl. ESIA Environmental Assessment & Strategy Plans).
Rapid flow within ice streams took place in a broad marginal zone of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet d... more Rapid flow within ice streams took place in a broad marginal zone of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet during deglaciation. Ice streams and interlobate zones have been characterised by analysis of glacial flow patterns, and examination of sedimentary features of interlobate glacial and glaciofluvial deposits. Reconstructed glaciodynamic systems are compared with ice streams of modem ice sheets. Wide interstream areas of inactive ice were left between some adjacent ice streams where they separated during the retreat of the margin. These areas are characterised by morainic hummocks composed of both till and glaciofluvia] sediment, and sections show indications of subglacial deformation. Observations from Fennoscandia suggest that these interstream areas were sites of net accumulation of glacial and glaciofluvial sediment during deglaciation. Glaciofluvial sediment was deposited in subglacial tunnels or cavities simultaneously with till deformation and deposition resulting from subglacial melting. Substantial glaciofluvial complexes were formed in narrow interlobate joints where adjacent ice lobes coalesced. A case study made in southem Finland shows converging flow patterns of two ice lobes and intervening glaciofluvial deposits. Concentration of meltwater in interlobate zones was a consequence of ice-sheet configuration. Thinner ice in interlobate zones caused convergence of supraglacial and subglacial drainage. The crevassed and strain-softened ice may also have allowed surface meltwater to penetrate down to the ice/bed interface close to the ice margin. Steep icevelocity gradients in interlobate zones would have increased subglacial melting rates, and this environment was favourable for establishment of a subglacial drainage network and deposition of glaciofluvial sediment.
The glacial geomorphology of Soviet Karelia was mapped using Landsat satellite imagery. The data ... more The glacial geomorphology of Soviet Karelia was mapped using Landsat satellite imagery. The data of the multispectral scanner were processed using the photographic image enhancement and color combination technique for visual interpretation. Glaciofluvial landforms, streamlined formations, end moraines and hummocky moraine tracts were mapped, along with the type and amount of glacial erosion. As a result of the work, the glaciomorphological data were greatly increased compared with maps available earlier. The direction and strength of the glacial flow and the stages of deglaciation were interpreted on the basis of the maps compiled. Conclusions were drawn as to the thermal regime of the ice sheet and the relations between the glacial dynamics and morphology. During the Allerod Substage, the main direction of the glacial flow was from the northwest, running radially from the Scandinavian mountain range. Later, the direction shifted about 30' more to the west, with the dome be...
This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Pro... more This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Project for Kazakhstan, which improves reforestation, forest fire management, and planting on the dry Aral seabed, and rangelands management, anticipates environmental risks and proposes measures to mitigate them. Likely impacts and compensating measures include restricting traffic to avoid erosion and formation of tracks; using seeds from nearby regions and selecting species based on botanical and soil scientific research, and correctly using fertilizers and watering, and removing dead trees to prevent pest damage; conserving the nutrient capital of sandy soils to maintain productivity; supporting natural regeneration over artificial regeneration, especially in ecological and recreational zones where possible; using hand tools and light machinery in wintertime, and generally minimizing soil disturbance to lessen damage to the topsoil; siting fire prevention lookout towers and access roads,...
This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Pro... more This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Project for Kazakhstan, which improves reforestation, forest fire management, and planting on the dry Aral seabed, and rangelands management, anticipates environmental risks and proposes measures to mitigate them. Likely impacts and compensating measures include restricting traffic to avoid erosion and formation of tracks; using seeds from nearby regions and selecting species based on botanical and soil scientific research, and correctly using fertilizers and watering, and removing dead trees to prevent pest damage; conserving the nutrient capital of sandy soils to maintain productivity; supporting natural regeneration over artificial regeneration, especially in ecological and recreational zones where possible; using hand tools and light machinery in wintertime, and generally minimizing soil disturbance to lessen damage to the topsoil; siting fire prevention lookout towers and access roads,...
Field observations in Central Asia indicate that the climate has been warming and the consequence... more Field observations in Central Asia indicate that the climate has been warming and the consequences of this trend have already been observed. Disasters related to climate change destroy settlements, agricultural land, and infrastructure. Central Asian countries should therefore develop resilience and adapt to climate change. This report shows the results of the research combining field observations with sophisticated satellite-based data and created models to demonstrate the impacts of climate change on the hydrology of the Aral Sea Basin.
This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Pro... more This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Project for Kazakhstan, which improves reforestation, forest fire management, and planting on the dry Aral seabed, and rangelands management, anticipates environmental risks and proposes measures to mitigate them. Likely impacts and compensating measures include restricting traffic to avoid erosion and formation of tracks; using seeds from nearby regions and selecting species based on botanical and soil scientific research, and correctly using fertilizers and watering, and removing dead trees to prevent pest damage; conserving the nutrient capital of sandy soils to maintain productivity; supporting natural regeneration over artificial regeneration, especially in ecological and recreational zones where possible; using hand tools and light machinery in wintertime, and generally minimizing soil disturbance to lessen damage to the topsoil; siting fire prevention lookout towers and access roads,...
This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Pro... more This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Project for Kazakhstan, which improves reforestation, forest fire management, and planting on the dry Aral seabed, and rangelands management, anticipates environmental risks and proposes measures to mitigate them. Likely impacts and compensating measures include restricting traffic to avoid erosion and formation of tracks; using seeds from nearby regions and selecting species based on botanical and soil scientific research, and correctly using fertilizers and watering, and removing dead trees to prevent pest damage; conserving the nutrient capital of sandy soils to maintain productivity; supporting natural regeneration over artificial regeneration, especially in ecological and recreational zones where possible; using hand tools and light machinery in wintertime, and generally minimizing soil disturbance to lessen damage to the topsoil; siting fire prevention lookout towers and access roads,...
This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Pro... more This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Project for Kazakhstan, which improves reforestation, forest fire management, and planting on the dry Aral seabed, and rangelands management, anticipates environmental risks and proposes measures to mitigate them. Likely impacts and compensating measures include restricting traffic to avoid erosion and formation of tracks; using seeds from nearby regions and selecting species based on botanical and soil scientific research, and correctly using fertilizers and watering, and removing dead trees to prevent pest damage; conserving the nutrient capital of sandy soils to maintain productivity; supporting natural regeneration over artificial regeneration, especially in ecological and recreational zones where possible; using hand tools and light machinery in wintertime, and generally minimizing soil disturbance to lessen damage to the topsoil; siting fire prevention lookout towers and access roads,...
This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Pro... more This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Project for Kazakhstan, which improves reforestation, forest fire management, and planting on the dry Aral seabed, and rangelands management, anticipates environmental risks and proposes measures to mitigate them. Likely impacts and compensating measures include restricting traffic to avoid erosion and formation of tracks; using seeds from nearby regions and selecting species based on botanical and soil scientific research, and correctly using fertilizers and watering, and removing dead trees to prevent pest damage; conserving the nutrient capital of sandy soils to maintain productivity; supporting natural regeneration over artificial regeneration, especially in ecological and recreational zones where possible; using hand tools and light machinery in wintertime, and generally minimizing soil disturbance to lessen damage to the topsoil; siting fire prevention lookout towers and access roads,...
This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Pro... more This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Project for Kazakhstan, which improves reforestation, forest fire management, and planting on the dry Aral seabed, and rangelands management, anticipates environmental risks and proposes measures to mitigate them. Likely impacts and compensating measures include restricting traffic to avoid erosion and formation of tracks; using seeds from nearby regions and selecting species based on botanical and soil scientific research, and correctly using fertilizers and watering, and removing dead trees to prevent pest damage; conserving the nutrient capital of sandy soils to maintain productivity; supporting natural regeneration over artificial regeneration, especially in ecological and recreational zones where possible; using hand tools and light machinery in wintertime, and generally minimizing soil disturbance to lessen damage to the topsoil; siting fire prevention lookout towers and access roads,...
The purpose of this toolkit is to provide practical guidance in the monitoring and evaluation of ... more The purpose of this toolkit is to provide practical guidance in the monitoring and evaluation of the environmental and social sustainability of Agricultural and Rural Development (ARD) programs and projects. The primary audience is agriculture and rural project managers, specifically field personnel, communities, client governments, other stakeholders, and World Bank Task Teams. Chapter 2 sets out the conceptual framework by examining the sectoral context of environmental and social sustainability and the resulting implications for project preparation, appraisal and implementation. Chapter 3 takes a closer look at the Bank's M&E requirements based on the results-based framework. Chapter 4 introduces appendix 1, which contains 11 matrices of sample indicators, organized by ARD subsector, of potential environmental and social changes that may be observed at outcome and impact levels as a result of a program/project's being implemented. Chapter 5 introduces appendix 2, which co...
This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Pro... more This environmental assessment and management plan for the Forest Protection and Reforestation Project for Kazakhstan, which improves reforestation, forest fire management, and planting on the dry Aral seabed, and rangelands management, anticipates environmental risks and proposes measures to mitigate them. Likely impacts and compensating measures include restricting traffic to avoid erosion and formation of tracks; using seeds from nearby regions and selecting species based on botanical and soil scientific research, and correctly using fertilizers and watering, and removing dead trees to prevent pest damage; conserving the nutrient capital of sandy soils to maintain productivity; supporting natural regeneration over artificial regeneration, especially in ecological and recreational zones where possible; using hand tools and light machinery in wintertime, and generally minimizing soil disturbance to lessen damage to the topsoil; siting fire prevention lookout towers and access roads,...
ABSTRACT Satellite images provide unique means of identifying large scale flow-generated lineatio... more ABSTRACT Satellite images provide unique means of identifying large scale flow-generated lineations produced by former ice sheets. They can be interpreted to reconstruct the major elements which make up the integrated, large scale structure of ice sheets: ice divides; ice streams; interstream ridges; ice shelves; calving bays. The evolving form of the European ice sheet during its decay after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) is reconstructed by reference to these components and in the context of a new map showing isochrons of retreat. During the retreat phase in particular the time dependent dynamic evolution of the ice sheet and the pattern of ice stream development are reconstructed.Crossing lineations are widespread. The older ones are suggested to have formed during molten bed phases of ice sheet growth and preserved by frozen bed conditions during the glacial maximum, particularly in areas which lay, during deglaciation, beneath ice divides and inter-ice stream ridges. both areas of slow flow and frozen bed conditions.Four phases of growth (A1 to A4) and five phases of decay (R1 to R5) are used to describe the major climatically and dynamically determined stages in the evolution of the ice sheet through the last glacial cycle. The growth and decay patterns are quite different, and associated with major shifts in the ice divide, reflecting growth from the Fennoscandian mountains and decay away from marine influenced margins.
Satellite images provide unique means of identifying large-scale #ow-generated lineations produce... more Satellite images provide unique means of identifying large-scale #ow-generated lineations produced by former ice sheets. They can be interpreted to reconstruct the major elements which make up the integrated, large-scale structure of ice sheets: ice divides; ice streams; interstream ridges; ice shelves; calving bays. The evolving palaeoglaciological structure of the European ice sheet during its decay from the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) is reconstructed by reference to these components and in the context of a new map showing isochrons of retreat. During the retreat phase in particular the time-dependent dynamic evolution of the ice sheet and the pattern of ice stream development are reconstructed. Crossing lineations are widespread. The older ones are suggested to have formed during molten bed phases of ice sheet growth and preserved by frozen bed conditions during the glacial maximum, particularly in areas which lay, during deglaciation, beneath ice divides and inter-ice stream ridges, both areas of slow #ow and possibly frozen bed conditions. Four phases of growth (A1 to A4) and "ve phases of decay (R1 to R5) are used to describe the major climatically and dynamically determined stages in the evolution of the ice sheet through the last glacial cycle. The growth and decay patterns are quite di!erent and associated with major shifts in the ice divide, re#ecting growth from the Fennoscandian mountains and decay away from marine in#uenced margins. These patterns were determined by the locations of nucleation areas; spatial patterns of climate; and calving at marine margins.The prevalence of streaming within the retreating ice sheet suggests that the mean elevation of the ice sheet was lower than predicted from glaciological models which do not include streaming, and that this might reconcile glaciological models and earth rheology models which infer paleao-ice sheet thickness by inverting sea level data.
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