Provision of adequate space for captive animals is essential for good welfare. It affects not onl... more Provision of adequate space for captive animals is essential for good welfare. It affects not only their behaviour but also determines whether there is sufficient room for appropriate environmental enrichment. Most importantly, appropriate cage size permits captive animals to be housed in socially harmonious groups and to fulfil their reproductive potential. For animals used in the laboratory, the environment can be an additional source of suffering and distress. If they can be better housed and cared for to reduce the overall impact of experiments upon them, then we are obliged to do so for ethical, legal and scientific reasons. Practically all current guidelines specify minimum cage sizes for laboratory primates based on unit body weight. We believe that no single factor is sufficient to determine minimum cage sizes for primates, and that instead a suite of characteristics should be used, including morphometric, ecological, social and behavioural characteristics. Here we explore t...
Published literature and scientific events provide opportunities to expand knowledge and develop ... more Published literature and scientific events provide opportunities to expand knowledge and develop skills in the care and use of non-human primates (NHPs) in research. Increasingly, these traditional routes of information exchange are being complemented by dedicated online resources aimed at sharing best practice in NHP care and use, and enhancing the training and professional development of laboratory staff working with NHPs. This article outlines some key online resources from the UK's National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs) and other organisations with an interest in NHP research, and the ways in which the resources can be integrated into staff training and research practices to enhance animal welfare, quality of science and application of the 3Rs.
Magnetic resonance imaging is playing a significant role in applying the 3Rs to neuroscience stud... more Magnetic resonance imaging is playing a significant role in applying the 3Rs to neuroscience studies using nonhuman primates. MRI scans are contributing to refinement by enhancing the selection and assignment of animals, guiding the manufacture of custom-fitted recording and head fixation devices, and assisting with the diagnosis of health issues and their treatment. MRI is also being used to better understand the impact of neuroscience procedures on the welfare of NHPs. MRI has helped to optimise NHP use and make greater scientific progress than would otherwise be made using larger numbers of animals. Whilst human fMRI studies have replaced some NHP studies, their potential to directly replace NHP electrophysiology is limited at present. Given the considerable advantages of MRI for electrophysiology experiments, including improved welfare of NHPs, consideration should be given to focusing NHP electrophysiology laboratories around MRI facilities. Greater sharing of MRI data sets, and improvements in MRI contrast and resolution, are expected to further advance the 3Rs in the future.
Aggression in group-housed laboratory mice is a serious animal welfare concern. Further understan... more Aggression in group-housed laboratory mice is a serious animal welfare concern. Further understanding of the causes of mouse aggression could have a significant impact on a large number of laboratory animals. The NC3Rs led a crowdsourcing project to collect data on the prevalence and potential triggers of aggression in laboratory mice. The crowdsourcing approach collected data from multiple institutions and is the first time such an approach has been applied to a laboratory animal welfare problem. Technicians observed group-housed, male mice during daily routine cage checks and recorded all incidents of aggression-related injuries. In total, 44 facilities participated in the study and data was collected by 143 animal technicians. A total of 788 incidents of aggression-related injuries were reported across a sample population of 137,580 mice. The mean facility-level prevalence of aggression-related incidents reported across facilities was equivalent to 15 in 1,000 mice. Key factors i...
Specifically designed restraint chairs are the preferred method of restraint for research studies... more Specifically designed restraint chairs are the preferred method of restraint for research studies that require NHP to sit in place for sustained periods of time. In light of increasing emphasis on refinement of restraint to improve animal wellbeing, it is important to have a better understanding of this potentially stressful procedure. Although chair restraint is used internationally, very little published information is available on this subject. We developed a survey to obtain an overview of equipment, procedures, and plans for improvement regarding chair restraint. We received 101 responses from people working in academic, government, contract research, and pharmaceutical laboratories within the Americas, Europe and Asia. Findings indicate that the majority of laboratories using restraint chairs work with macaque species. Restraint chairs are used for a wide range of procedures, including cognitive testing, recording neuronal activity, functional MRI, intravenous infusion, and bl...
Animals : an open access journal from MDPI, Jan 23, 2016
Millions of laboratory animals are killed each year worldwide. There is an ethical, and in many c... more Millions of laboratory animals are killed each year worldwide. There is an ethical, and in many countries also a legal, imperative to ensure those deaths cause minimal suffering. However, there is a lack of consensus regarding what methods of killing are humane for many species and stages of development. In 2013, an international group of researchers and stakeholders met at Newcastle University, United Kingdom to discuss the latest research and which methods could currently be considered most humane for the most commonly used laboratory species (mice, rats and zebrafish). They also discussed factors to consider when making decisions about appropriate techniques for particular species and projects, and priorities for further research. This report summarises the research findings and discussions, with recommendations to help inform good practice for humane killing.
We carried out a 4-month census of primates in the Pando Department of northern Bolivia with spec... more We carried out a 4-month census of primates in the Pando Department of northern Bolivia with special emphasis on Saguinus species. Contrary to a previous report by , there was no evidence for the presence of the two populations of Saguinus mystax that they reported, or that Lagothrix occurs in the Pando. In addition, we found the distribution of Saguinus imperator to be more restricted than they suggested. We confirm the presence of Cebuella south of the Rı ´o Tahuamanu (cf. Brown and Rumiz, 1986) and report two new locations for Callimico goeldii. We present data on group sizes, habitat utilization, and locomotor behavior of the primates and compare them with previous studies in the Pando. Differences in body size, diet, foraging techniques, and vertical use of the forest appear to be key factors in both sympatry and in the formation of polyspecific associations.
Page 1. 288 Anthrozoös, 18 (3) . 2005 Prescott, et al. Training of laboratory-housed non-human pr... more Page 1. 288 Anthrozoös, 18 (3) . 2005 Prescott, et al. Training of laboratory-housed non-human primates in the UK Mark J. Prescott*, Hannah M. Buchanan-Smith and Anita E. Rennie * Research Animals Department, RSPCA ...
Training nonhuman primates to cooperate with routine scientific, husbandry, and veterinary proced... more Training nonhuman primates to cooperate with routine scientific, husbandry, and veterinary procedures is recommended as good practice by many legislative and professional guidelines (Home Office, 1989; International Primatological Society, 1989). Despite this, the scientific literature on this topic is sparse and disparate, and training is not used as widely as it might be. This may be due to the paucity of information on how to train and its potential benefits, together with the lack of reliable assessment of the potential costs of training. Whatever the reason, it is unfortunate because training can reduce the fear, anxiety, and distress known to be caused to primates by many traditional methods of carrying out procedures (Reinhardt, Liss, & Stevens, 1995). Primates in the laboratory may experience a plethora of potential stressors including physical and chemical restraint, venipuncture, injection, and participation in other husbandry routines such as catching, cage change, and weighing. Training them to cooperate voluntarily, using positive reinforcement training (PRT) techniques, is one means of significantly reducing the adverse impact of such procedures and husbandry routines on them and, therefore, is a refinement. Refinement
The guidelines presented here were prepared by the International Primatology Society (IPS) Captiv... more The guidelines presented here were prepared by the International Primatology Society (IPS) Captive Care and Breeding Committee (list of committee members provided on Page 1) and subsequently endorsed by the IPS Executive Council at the XXI IPS Congress in Entebbe, ...
Background: Accurate assessment of the welfare of non-human primates (NHPs) used and bred for sci... more Background: Accurate assessment of the welfare of non-human primates (NHPs) used and bred for scientific purposes is essential for effective implementation of obligations to optimise their well-being, for validation of refinement techniques and novel welfare indicators, and for ensuring the highest quality data is obtained from these animals. Despite the importance of welfare assessment in NHP research, there is little consensus on what should be measured. Greater harmonisation of welfare indicators between facilities would enable greater collaboration and data sharing to address welfare-related questions in the management and use of NHPs. Methods: A Delphi consultation was used to survey attendees of the 2019 NC3Rs Primate Welfare Meeting (73 respondents) to build consensus on which welfare indicators for macaques and marmosets are reliable, valid, and practicable, and how these can be measured. Results: Self-harm behaviour, social enrichment, cage dimensions, body weight, a health...
To understand non-human primates and to provide them with good welfare it is important to know ho... more To understand non-human primates and to provide them with good welfare it is important to know how they perceive the world and communicate among themselves. Of all the animals used in the laboratory, the perceptual world of the non-human primates is assumed to be most similar to that of man, in particular because of our shared refined visual capabilities. However, there are important differences between the sensory capabilities of non-human primates when compared with man, and there are genera and some species differences too. This article summaries the sensory capabilities of the non-human primates commonly used in the laboratory, highlights important modes of communication, and identifies several implications of these for designing and refining experiments, housing and husbandry systems and enrichment strategies.
Non-human primates (NHPs) are used extensively in the development of vaccines and therapeutics fo... more Non-human primates (NHPs) are used extensively in the development of vaccines and therapeutics for human disease. High standards in the design, conduct, and reporting of NHP vaccine studies are crucial for maximizing their scientific value and translation, and for making efficient use of precious resources. A key aspect is consideration of the 3Rs principles of replacement, reduction, and refinement. Funders of NHP research are placing increasing emphasis on the 3Rs, helping to ensure such studies are legitimate, ethical, and high-quality. The UK’s National Centre for the 3Rs (NC3Rs) and the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) have collaborated on a range of initiatives to support vaccine developers to implement the 3Rs, including hosting an international workshop in 2019. The workshop identified opportunities to refine NHP vaccine studies to minimize harm and improve welfare, which can yield better quality, more reproducible data. Careful animal selection, social...
Breakthroughs in gene editing technologies have made it feasible to create genetically altered (G... more Breakthroughs in gene editing technologies have made it feasible to create genetically altered (GA) non-human primate (NHP) models of disease. This area of research is accelerating, particularly in China, Japan and the USA, and could lead to an increase in NHP use globally. The hope is that genetic models in animal species closely related to humans will significantly improve understanding of neurological diseases and validation of potential therapeutic interventions, for which there is a dire need. However, the creation and use of GA NHPs raises serious animal welfare and ethical issues, which are highlighted here. It represents a step change in how these highly sentient animals are used in biomedical research, because of the large numbers required, inherent wastage and the sum of the harms caused to the animals involved. There is little evidence of these important issues being addressed alongside the rapidly advancing science. We are still learning about how gene editing tools work...
This article provides an overview of the ethical issues raised by the use of non-human primates (... more This article provides an overview of the ethical issues raised by the use of non-human primates (NHPs) in research involving scientific procedures which may cause pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm. It is not an exhaustive review of the literature and views on this subject, and it does not present any conclusions about the moral acceptability or otherwise of NHP research. Rather the aim has been to identify the ethical issues involved and to provide guidance on how these might be addressed, in particular by carefully examining the scientific rationale for NHP use, implementing fully the 3Rs principle of Russell and Burch (1959) and applying a robust "harm-benefit assessment" to research proposals involving NHPs.
I would like here to express my appreciation and gratitude to the many individuals and organisati... more I would like here to express my appreciation and gratitude to the many individuals and organisations without which I could not have completed this body of work. First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. Hannah Buchanan-Smith for her unflagging support and supervision throughout this thesis. From its conception through to its completion, I received all the conscientious guidance, constructive criticism, encouragement, council and friendship I wished for, no matter how busy she herself was. I must thank her also for assistance outside of the thesis: for career guidance, for the opportunity to conduct more fieldwork and to teach, for encouraging me to present at conferences, for the Research Assistantship, and for ferrying me to and from Belfast! Secondly, I wish to thank Dr. Scott Hardie whose friendship, honest advice, frank discussion, foresight and willing support have been invaluable throughout this thesis. I am also particularly grateful for his setting-up and initiating of the research at Belfast Zoological Gardens, and for the generous opportunity to join the research expedition in Bolivia in 1997. I am profoundly indebted to these two people and, again, I offer them my deepest thanks. From them I have learned a great deal and have had a lot of fun doing so. A great many thanks go out to the Belfast Parks Department and Belfast Zoological Gardens for allowing the study to take place, for the use of the office and resources, and for the numerous other forms of assistance freely provided during my time in Belfast. All the zoo staff extended their absolute friendship, cooperation and aid during my summers at the zoo. In particular, I would like to acknowledge John Stronge (Zoo Manager) and Mark Challis (Assistant Zoo Manager) who were always helpful and receptive to my requests.
Provision of adequate space for captive animals is essential for good welfare. It affects not onl... more Provision of adequate space for captive animals is essential for good welfare. It affects not only their behaviour but also determines whether there is sufficient room for appropriate environmental enrichment. Most importantly, appropriate cage size permits captive animals to be housed in socially harmonious groups and to fulfil their reproductive potential. For animals used in the laboratory, the environment can be an additional source of suffering and distress. If they can be better housed and cared for to reduce the overall impact of experiments upon them, then we are obliged to do so for ethical, legal and scientific reasons. Practically all current guidelines specify minimum cage sizes for laboratory primates based on unit body weight. We believe that no single factor is sufficient to determine minimum cage sizes for primates, and that instead a suite of characteristics should be used, including morphometric, ecological, social and behavioural characteristics. Here we explore t...
Published literature and scientific events provide opportunities to expand knowledge and develop ... more Published literature and scientific events provide opportunities to expand knowledge and develop skills in the care and use of non-human primates (NHPs) in research. Increasingly, these traditional routes of information exchange are being complemented by dedicated online resources aimed at sharing best practice in NHP care and use, and enhancing the training and professional development of laboratory staff working with NHPs. This article outlines some key online resources from the UK's National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs) and other organisations with an interest in NHP research, and the ways in which the resources can be integrated into staff training and research practices to enhance animal welfare, quality of science and application of the 3Rs.
Magnetic resonance imaging is playing a significant role in applying the 3Rs to neuroscience stud... more Magnetic resonance imaging is playing a significant role in applying the 3Rs to neuroscience studies using nonhuman primates. MRI scans are contributing to refinement by enhancing the selection and assignment of animals, guiding the manufacture of custom-fitted recording and head fixation devices, and assisting with the diagnosis of health issues and their treatment. MRI is also being used to better understand the impact of neuroscience procedures on the welfare of NHPs. MRI has helped to optimise NHP use and make greater scientific progress than would otherwise be made using larger numbers of animals. Whilst human fMRI studies have replaced some NHP studies, their potential to directly replace NHP electrophysiology is limited at present. Given the considerable advantages of MRI for electrophysiology experiments, including improved welfare of NHPs, consideration should be given to focusing NHP electrophysiology laboratories around MRI facilities. Greater sharing of MRI data sets, and improvements in MRI contrast and resolution, are expected to further advance the 3Rs in the future.
Aggression in group-housed laboratory mice is a serious animal welfare concern. Further understan... more Aggression in group-housed laboratory mice is a serious animal welfare concern. Further understanding of the causes of mouse aggression could have a significant impact on a large number of laboratory animals. The NC3Rs led a crowdsourcing project to collect data on the prevalence and potential triggers of aggression in laboratory mice. The crowdsourcing approach collected data from multiple institutions and is the first time such an approach has been applied to a laboratory animal welfare problem. Technicians observed group-housed, male mice during daily routine cage checks and recorded all incidents of aggression-related injuries. In total, 44 facilities participated in the study and data was collected by 143 animal technicians. A total of 788 incidents of aggression-related injuries were reported across a sample population of 137,580 mice. The mean facility-level prevalence of aggression-related incidents reported across facilities was equivalent to 15 in 1,000 mice. Key factors i...
Specifically designed restraint chairs are the preferred method of restraint for research studies... more Specifically designed restraint chairs are the preferred method of restraint for research studies that require NHP to sit in place for sustained periods of time. In light of increasing emphasis on refinement of restraint to improve animal wellbeing, it is important to have a better understanding of this potentially stressful procedure. Although chair restraint is used internationally, very little published information is available on this subject. We developed a survey to obtain an overview of equipment, procedures, and plans for improvement regarding chair restraint. We received 101 responses from people working in academic, government, contract research, and pharmaceutical laboratories within the Americas, Europe and Asia. Findings indicate that the majority of laboratories using restraint chairs work with macaque species. Restraint chairs are used for a wide range of procedures, including cognitive testing, recording neuronal activity, functional MRI, intravenous infusion, and bl...
Animals : an open access journal from MDPI, Jan 23, 2016
Millions of laboratory animals are killed each year worldwide. There is an ethical, and in many c... more Millions of laboratory animals are killed each year worldwide. There is an ethical, and in many countries also a legal, imperative to ensure those deaths cause minimal suffering. However, there is a lack of consensus regarding what methods of killing are humane for many species and stages of development. In 2013, an international group of researchers and stakeholders met at Newcastle University, United Kingdom to discuss the latest research and which methods could currently be considered most humane for the most commonly used laboratory species (mice, rats and zebrafish). They also discussed factors to consider when making decisions about appropriate techniques for particular species and projects, and priorities for further research. This report summarises the research findings and discussions, with recommendations to help inform good practice for humane killing.
We carried out a 4-month census of primates in the Pando Department of northern Bolivia with spec... more We carried out a 4-month census of primates in the Pando Department of northern Bolivia with special emphasis on Saguinus species. Contrary to a previous report by , there was no evidence for the presence of the two populations of Saguinus mystax that they reported, or that Lagothrix occurs in the Pando. In addition, we found the distribution of Saguinus imperator to be more restricted than they suggested. We confirm the presence of Cebuella south of the Rı ´o Tahuamanu (cf. Brown and Rumiz, 1986) and report two new locations for Callimico goeldii. We present data on group sizes, habitat utilization, and locomotor behavior of the primates and compare them with previous studies in the Pando. Differences in body size, diet, foraging techniques, and vertical use of the forest appear to be key factors in both sympatry and in the formation of polyspecific associations.
Page 1. 288 Anthrozoös, 18 (3) . 2005 Prescott, et al. Training of laboratory-housed non-human pr... more Page 1. 288 Anthrozoös, 18 (3) . 2005 Prescott, et al. Training of laboratory-housed non-human primates in the UK Mark J. Prescott*, Hannah M. Buchanan-Smith and Anita E. Rennie * Research Animals Department, RSPCA ...
Training nonhuman primates to cooperate with routine scientific, husbandry, and veterinary proced... more Training nonhuman primates to cooperate with routine scientific, husbandry, and veterinary procedures is recommended as good practice by many legislative and professional guidelines (Home Office, 1989; International Primatological Society, 1989). Despite this, the scientific literature on this topic is sparse and disparate, and training is not used as widely as it might be. This may be due to the paucity of information on how to train and its potential benefits, together with the lack of reliable assessment of the potential costs of training. Whatever the reason, it is unfortunate because training can reduce the fear, anxiety, and distress known to be caused to primates by many traditional methods of carrying out procedures (Reinhardt, Liss, & Stevens, 1995). Primates in the laboratory may experience a plethora of potential stressors including physical and chemical restraint, venipuncture, injection, and participation in other husbandry routines such as catching, cage change, and weighing. Training them to cooperate voluntarily, using positive reinforcement training (PRT) techniques, is one means of significantly reducing the adverse impact of such procedures and husbandry routines on them and, therefore, is a refinement. Refinement
The guidelines presented here were prepared by the International Primatology Society (IPS) Captiv... more The guidelines presented here were prepared by the International Primatology Society (IPS) Captive Care and Breeding Committee (list of committee members provided on Page 1) and subsequently endorsed by the IPS Executive Council at the XXI IPS Congress in Entebbe, ...
Background: Accurate assessment of the welfare of non-human primates (NHPs) used and bred for sci... more Background: Accurate assessment of the welfare of non-human primates (NHPs) used and bred for scientific purposes is essential for effective implementation of obligations to optimise their well-being, for validation of refinement techniques and novel welfare indicators, and for ensuring the highest quality data is obtained from these animals. Despite the importance of welfare assessment in NHP research, there is little consensus on what should be measured. Greater harmonisation of welfare indicators between facilities would enable greater collaboration and data sharing to address welfare-related questions in the management and use of NHPs. Methods: A Delphi consultation was used to survey attendees of the 2019 NC3Rs Primate Welfare Meeting (73 respondents) to build consensus on which welfare indicators for macaques and marmosets are reliable, valid, and practicable, and how these can be measured. Results: Self-harm behaviour, social enrichment, cage dimensions, body weight, a health...
To understand non-human primates and to provide them with good welfare it is important to know ho... more To understand non-human primates and to provide them with good welfare it is important to know how they perceive the world and communicate among themselves. Of all the animals used in the laboratory, the perceptual world of the non-human primates is assumed to be most similar to that of man, in particular because of our shared refined visual capabilities. However, there are important differences between the sensory capabilities of non-human primates when compared with man, and there are genera and some species differences too. This article summaries the sensory capabilities of the non-human primates commonly used in the laboratory, highlights important modes of communication, and identifies several implications of these for designing and refining experiments, housing and husbandry systems and enrichment strategies.
Non-human primates (NHPs) are used extensively in the development of vaccines and therapeutics fo... more Non-human primates (NHPs) are used extensively in the development of vaccines and therapeutics for human disease. High standards in the design, conduct, and reporting of NHP vaccine studies are crucial for maximizing their scientific value and translation, and for making efficient use of precious resources. A key aspect is consideration of the 3Rs principles of replacement, reduction, and refinement. Funders of NHP research are placing increasing emphasis on the 3Rs, helping to ensure such studies are legitimate, ethical, and high-quality. The UK’s National Centre for the 3Rs (NC3Rs) and the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) have collaborated on a range of initiatives to support vaccine developers to implement the 3Rs, including hosting an international workshop in 2019. The workshop identified opportunities to refine NHP vaccine studies to minimize harm and improve welfare, which can yield better quality, more reproducible data. Careful animal selection, social...
Breakthroughs in gene editing technologies have made it feasible to create genetically altered (G... more Breakthroughs in gene editing technologies have made it feasible to create genetically altered (GA) non-human primate (NHP) models of disease. This area of research is accelerating, particularly in China, Japan and the USA, and could lead to an increase in NHP use globally. The hope is that genetic models in animal species closely related to humans will significantly improve understanding of neurological diseases and validation of potential therapeutic interventions, for which there is a dire need. However, the creation and use of GA NHPs raises serious animal welfare and ethical issues, which are highlighted here. It represents a step change in how these highly sentient animals are used in biomedical research, because of the large numbers required, inherent wastage and the sum of the harms caused to the animals involved. There is little evidence of these important issues being addressed alongside the rapidly advancing science. We are still learning about how gene editing tools work...
This article provides an overview of the ethical issues raised by the use of non-human primates (... more This article provides an overview of the ethical issues raised by the use of non-human primates (NHPs) in research involving scientific procedures which may cause pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm. It is not an exhaustive review of the literature and views on this subject, and it does not present any conclusions about the moral acceptability or otherwise of NHP research. Rather the aim has been to identify the ethical issues involved and to provide guidance on how these might be addressed, in particular by carefully examining the scientific rationale for NHP use, implementing fully the 3Rs principle of Russell and Burch (1959) and applying a robust "harm-benefit assessment" to research proposals involving NHPs.
I would like here to express my appreciation and gratitude to the many individuals and organisati... more I would like here to express my appreciation and gratitude to the many individuals and organisations without which I could not have completed this body of work. First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. Hannah Buchanan-Smith for her unflagging support and supervision throughout this thesis. From its conception through to its completion, I received all the conscientious guidance, constructive criticism, encouragement, council and friendship I wished for, no matter how busy she herself was. I must thank her also for assistance outside of the thesis: for career guidance, for the opportunity to conduct more fieldwork and to teach, for encouraging me to present at conferences, for the Research Assistantship, and for ferrying me to and from Belfast! Secondly, I wish to thank Dr. Scott Hardie whose friendship, honest advice, frank discussion, foresight and willing support have been invaluable throughout this thesis. I am also particularly grateful for his setting-up and initiating of the research at Belfast Zoological Gardens, and for the generous opportunity to join the research expedition in Bolivia in 1997. I am profoundly indebted to these two people and, again, I offer them my deepest thanks. From them I have learned a great deal and have had a lot of fun doing so. A great many thanks go out to the Belfast Parks Department and Belfast Zoological Gardens for allowing the study to take place, for the use of the office and resources, and for the numerous other forms of assistance freely provided during my time in Belfast. All the zoo staff extended their absolute friendship, cooperation and aid during my summers at the zoo. In particular, I would like to acknowledge John Stronge (Zoo Manager) and Mark Challis (Assistant Zoo Manager) who were always helpful and receptive to my requests.
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