With a foreword by Iranian film-maker Amir Amirani, this edited collection of work by students in... more With a foreword by Iranian film-maker Amir Amirani, this edited collection of work by students in Flinders University's Archaeology of Modern Society class looks at the material culture associated in some way with war and peace.
With a foreword by award-winning author and space critic Ceridwen Dovey, this edited collection o... more With a foreword by award-winning author and space critic Ceridwen Dovey, this edited collection of work by students in Flinders University's Archaeology of Modern Society class looks at how space objects are connected to everyday life.
Comparatively little is known about the archaeology of the Mitchell Grass Downs region of inland ... more Comparatively little is known about the archaeology of the Mitchell Grass Downs region of inland Queensland. This paper reports the results of investigations of an open site complex therein, comprising numerous hearths, a human burial, middens, stone arrangements and a stone artefact assemblage. Analysis reveals the stone artefact assemblage is a palimpsest, representing multiple events in the late Holocene compressed into a single non-stratified archaeological surface assemblage. The evidence suggests use of the area was by highly mobile, transient populations passing through on an occasional seasonal basis when environmental conditions were amenable to travel; suggestions for a semi-sedentary population are not supported. Clear evidence for the extensive removal, weathering, reuse and recycling of artefacts has implications for our ability to reconstruct past human behaviours and landscape use in this region.
This paper reports on the recording of previously unpublished Aboriginal stone hut structures in ... more This paper reports on the recording of previously unpublished Aboriginal stone hut structures in southwestern Queensland. Located along the Georgina River, these 15 structures are typical of the region, being generally circular in plan view, with an average diameter of 5m and a 1m-wide opening consistently positioned to afford protection from prevailing winds. Evidence suggests these structures were roofed with vegetation and, while they pre-date the contact period, appear also to have been used into at least the late 1800s. Artefacts associated with them include stone flakes, cores and edge-ground axe fragments, freshwater mussel shells, rifle cartridge cases, fragments of glass, and metal objects. A comparison of these stone hut structures is made with similar features from elsewhere in Australia, demonstrating that there was a widespread but consistent use of stone for construction. This short report contributes to an increasing awareness of, and literature about, built structure...
The time of arrival of people in Australia is an unresolved question. It is relevant to debates a... more The time of arrival of people in Australia is an unresolved question. It is relevant to debates about when modern humans first dispersed out of Africa and when their descendants incorporated genetic material from Neanderthals, Denisovans and possibly other hominins. Humans have also been implicated in the extinction of Australia's megafauna. Here we report the results of new excavations conducted at Madjedbebe, a rock shelter in northern Australia. Artefacts in primary depositional context are concentrated in three dense bands, with the stratigraphic integrity of the deposit demonstrated by artefact refits and by optical dating and other analyses of the sediments. Human occupation began around 65,000 years ago, with a distinctive stone tool assemblage including grinding stones, ground ochres, reflective additives and ground-edge hatchet heads. This evidence sets a new minimum age for the arrival of humans in Australia, the dispersal of modern humans out of Africa, and the subseq...
Built structures in rockshelters are relatively common archaeological features in the Pilbara tha... more Built structures in rockshelters are relatively common archaeological features in the Pilbara that have been neglected in the published literature. Drawing primarily on grey literature, coupled with new data from recent investigations, this paper provides a review of current knowledge about these enigmatic structures. Results show that these features are found across the Hamersley Plateau, although are especially abundant in the Packsaddle Range, and in the Chichester Ranges. Most are likely to be late Holocene features, concurrent with a suite of other changes that occurred during that period. The current practice of grouping all built structures in rockshelters into a single site type (i.e. '(hu)man-made structures') conceals wide variation amongst them. A typology is suggested based on morphological and contextual features to allow better characterisation of these features, thereby improving understandings of their distribution and functions, and facilitating more adequate assessments of their significance in management contexts.
This study investigates the palynological remains (both fossil pollen and charcoal) recovered fro... more This study investigates the palynological remains (both fossil pollen and charcoal) recovered from the Thundiy shell midden deposit, Bentinck Island, Gulf of Carpentaria, northern Australia, to provide a vegetation and fire record for this site, which sheds light on human occupation of the southern Wellesley Archipelago over the late Holocene. Results show that the development of a high-density shell deposit by human activities was directly responsible for pollen preservation, possibly through the creation of a moist, anaerobic environment that reduces oxidation of pollen grains. The presence of recoverable pollen from a shell midden deposit from Bentinck Island provides a valuable new proxy to provide greater context for archaeological records, particularly in terms of local vegetation information and potential insight into human land management practices.
This paper presents an overview of archaeological investigations in the Sir Edward Pellew Islands... more This paper presents an overview of archaeological investigations in the Sir Edward Pellew Islands in the southwest Gulf of Carpentaria, northern Australia, It is argued that Vanderlin Island, like the majority of Australia's offshore islands, attests to a lacuna in human habitation for several thousand years after the marine transgression and consequent insulation c.6700 years ago. With the imminent threat of inundation, people appear to have retreated to higher land, abandoning the peripheral exposed shelf areas; subsequent (re)colonisation of these relict shelf areas in their form as islands took place steadily from c.4200 Bp, with increased intensity of occupation after 1300 BP. Possible links between the timing of island occupation, watercraft technology and the role of climate change are investigated, with more recent changes in the archaeological record of Vanderlin Island also examined in light of cultural contact with Macassans.
Informit is an online service offering a wide range of database and full content publication prod... more Informit is an online service offering a wide range of database and full content publication products that deliver the vast majority of Australasian scholarly research to the education, research and business sectors. Informit is the brand that encompasses RMIT Publishing's online products ...
For several years now the Australian Archaeological Association (AAA) has been expanding its onli... more For several years now the Australian Archaeological Association (AAA) has been expanding its online presence through the Association's website, Facebook page and Twitter account. In order to ascertain whether these activities are worth the investment of time and energy required to pursue and maintain them, an audience survey was undertaken. Coupled with interrogation of Facebook and Twitter user data, the survey results were assessed to understand better AAA's online audience, the value of particular kinds of content, and the online platforms and their use, in order to tailor the Association's efforts. Results show surprising uptake and use by all age groups, despite the common perception that social media users are predominantly 'young'. Our overall assessment is that a strong understanding of one's audience leads to more sophisticated use of online media, which is proving essential to achieving the objects and purposes of the Association in terms of public education and the dissemination of archaeological information, allowing a much broader audience beyond the Association's own membership base to be reached.
This preliminary report describes the initial results from an archaeological survey conducted in ... more This preliminary report describes the initial results from an archaeological survey conducted in the foothills of the Gregory Ranges on Middle Park Station in inland northwest Queensland. Nearly 130 Aboriginal sites were located during the survey, which was carried out as a collaborative project between an archaeologist (LW) and members of the Woolgar Valley Aboriginal Corporation (DS and HS). Sites were dominated by rockshelters containing stenciled art, although open artefact scatters, grinding surfaces, axe grinding grooves and quarries were also present. This project has enabled the Woolgar Valley Aboriginal Corporation to begin compiling a detailed inventory of sites in their traditional country, thereby allowing a better understanding of their cultural heritage and addressing various research oriented questions about the nature of Aboriginal occupation in the region.
In this postmodern World the evocation of ecological approaches in archaeology conjures up vision... more In this postmodern World the evocation of ecological approaches in archaeology conjures up visions of banal environmental determinism and passive human actors receiving their cues fiom terrifying landscapes. And yet
South Wales. Children from the three traditional tribal groups of the Willandra Lakes walk on the... more South Wales. Children from the three traditional tribal groups of the Willandra Lakes walk on the site of what promises to be the world's largest collection of Pleistocene human footprints in the world (photograph courtesy of Michael Amendolia).
... 1 Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australial... more ... 1 Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, [email protected][email protected] 2 Aboriginal Environments Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia 3 Research ...
Page 1. 63 Number 62, June 2006 PORTONIAN RESPECTABILITY: WORKING-CLASS ATTITUDES TO RESPECTABILI... more Page 1. 63 Number 62, June 2006 PORTONIAN RESPECTABILITY: WORKING-CLASS ATTITUDES TO RESPECTABILITY IN PORT ADELAIDE THROUGH MATERIAL CULTURE, 18401900 Susan Briggs PhD, Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, August 2005 ...
Examination of a phytolith assemblage from the archaeological site of Carpenter's Gap 1 provides ... more Examination of a phytolith assemblage from the archaeological site of Carpenter's Gap 1 provides an hitherto unrecognised source of vegetation history for the tropical savannah region of north western Australia. Two predominant mechanisms contributed to the formation of the phytolith assemblage: firstly, the introduction of phytoliths in plant materials brought in by humans, and, secondly, the introduction of phytoliths contained in faecal pellets deposited by animals. Separating the effects of both mechanisms enables local vegetation patterns, and, by inference, climatic conditions, to be reconstructed. The period ca. 40,000 years BP was probably wetter than today, allowing the southerly expansion of palms beyond their present day distribution. Grassland compositional changes occurred by ca. 33,000 years BP, probably resulting from a combination of lowered rainfall, decreased temperatures and possibly Aboriginal firing activities. A reduction in palm at a similar time, followed by its complete disappearance, in association with the loss of Ulmaceae prior to the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) indicates a continued trend in decreasing water availability. An abundance of Cyperaceae, sponge spicules and diatoms during the LGM, when considered in conjunction with the other evidence, possibly represents altered human behaviour in response to increased aridity.
Clarkson, C. and Wallis, Lynley (2003). The search for El Nino/Southern Oscillation in archaeolog... more Clarkson, C. and Wallis, Lynley (2003). The search for El Nino/Southern Oscillation in archaeological Sites: Recent results from Jugali-Ya Rockshelter, Wardaman Country, Australia. In DM Hart and LA Wallis (Ed.), Phytolith and starch research in the Australian-Pacific-Asian regions : the ...
In regions that lack built structures or stratified open archaeological sites, such as precolonia... more In regions that lack built structures or stratified open archaeological sites, such as precolonial Australia, rockshelters are a major source of detailed information for understanding the nature and timing of human occupation. A key concern is that the proposed ages for the earliest archaeological sites are based on luminescence dating of sediments, rather than directly of cultural materials, leaving the association between the sediments and evidence of human activity questionable. Here, we present evidence of magnetic enhancement associated with cultural horizons within the deposits of a Pleistocene rockshelter in interior northern Queensland. Soil magnetic studies combined with experimental burning show that magnetically enhanced sediments in Gledswood Shelter 1 are the result of anthropogenic burning of hearth fires, which burn hotter and for a longer time than natural wild fires. These techniques appear to work in this setting because of the nature of the local geology and the geological antiquity of the landscape. Susceptibility and frequency dependence of susceptibility signatures provide a critical tool to resolve that human occupation starts at 2.2 m depth within a stratigraphic section. In conjunction with luminescence dating, soil magnetic studies provide an opportunity for archaeologists to resolve the timing of human settlement in Australia and other intracratonic plate settings.
fall and drought where they can survive in a state of dormancy until favorable conditions return.... more fall and drought where they can survive in a state of dormancy until favorable conditions return. Spinifex species are usually divided into two informal groups based on their different growth forms, distributions and physiology. The so-called 'hard' species (which include, among others, Triodia basedowii E.Pritz., Triodia irritans R.Br., Triodia longiceps J.M.Black and Triodia wiseana C.A.Gardner) have closely packed, rigid leaves which are almost impossible to touch, while 'soft' species (which include, among others, Triodia bynoei (C.E.Hubb.) Lazarides, Triodia helmsii (C.E.Hubb.) Lazarides, Triodia microstachya R.Br. and Triodia pungens R.Br.) have relatively loosely arranged, less rigid leaves that can be comparatively more easily handled. Soft species tend to be more common in the northern half of the continent where they form a more or less continuous cover, rather than the discrete, rounded hummock habit of the hard species (Moore 2005:210; see Figure 1). The primary difference between the soft and hard spinifex groups relates to their ability to produce resin. As detailed by Burbidge (1946),
With a foreword by Iranian film-maker Amir Amirani, this edited collection of work by students in... more With a foreword by Iranian film-maker Amir Amirani, this edited collection of work by students in Flinders University's Archaeology of Modern Society class looks at the material culture associated in some way with war and peace.
With a foreword by award-winning author and space critic Ceridwen Dovey, this edited collection o... more With a foreword by award-winning author and space critic Ceridwen Dovey, this edited collection of work by students in Flinders University's Archaeology of Modern Society class looks at how space objects are connected to everyday life.
Comparatively little is known about the archaeology of the Mitchell Grass Downs region of inland ... more Comparatively little is known about the archaeology of the Mitchell Grass Downs region of inland Queensland. This paper reports the results of investigations of an open site complex therein, comprising numerous hearths, a human burial, middens, stone arrangements and a stone artefact assemblage. Analysis reveals the stone artefact assemblage is a palimpsest, representing multiple events in the late Holocene compressed into a single non-stratified archaeological surface assemblage. The evidence suggests use of the area was by highly mobile, transient populations passing through on an occasional seasonal basis when environmental conditions were amenable to travel; suggestions for a semi-sedentary population are not supported. Clear evidence for the extensive removal, weathering, reuse and recycling of artefacts has implications for our ability to reconstruct past human behaviours and landscape use in this region.
This paper reports on the recording of previously unpublished Aboriginal stone hut structures in ... more This paper reports on the recording of previously unpublished Aboriginal stone hut structures in southwestern Queensland. Located along the Georgina River, these 15 structures are typical of the region, being generally circular in plan view, with an average diameter of 5m and a 1m-wide opening consistently positioned to afford protection from prevailing winds. Evidence suggests these structures were roofed with vegetation and, while they pre-date the contact period, appear also to have been used into at least the late 1800s. Artefacts associated with them include stone flakes, cores and edge-ground axe fragments, freshwater mussel shells, rifle cartridge cases, fragments of glass, and metal objects. A comparison of these stone hut structures is made with similar features from elsewhere in Australia, demonstrating that there was a widespread but consistent use of stone for construction. This short report contributes to an increasing awareness of, and literature about, built structure...
The time of arrival of people in Australia is an unresolved question. It is relevant to debates a... more The time of arrival of people in Australia is an unresolved question. It is relevant to debates about when modern humans first dispersed out of Africa and when their descendants incorporated genetic material from Neanderthals, Denisovans and possibly other hominins. Humans have also been implicated in the extinction of Australia's megafauna. Here we report the results of new excavations conducted at Madjedbebe, a rock shelter in northern Australia. Artefacts in primary depositional context are concentrated in three dense bands, with the stratigraphic integrity of the deposit demonstrated by artefact refits and by optical dating and other analyses of the sediments. Human occupation began around 65,000 years ago, with a distinctive stone tool assemblage including grinding stones, ground ochres, reflective additives and ground-edge hatchet heads. This evidence sets a new minimum age for the arrival of humans in Australia, the dispersal of modern humans out of Africa, and the subseq...
Built structures in rockshelters are relatively common archaeological features in the Pilbara tha... more Built structures in rockshelters are relatively common archaeological features in the Pilbara that have been neglected in the published literature. Drawing primarily on grey literature, coupled with new data from recent investigations, this paper provides a review of current knowledge about these enigmatic structures. Results show that these features are found across the Hamersley Plateau, although are especially abundant in the Packsaddle Range, and in the Chichester Ranges. Most are likely to be late Holocene features, concurrent with a suite of other changes that occurred during that period. The current practice of grouping all built structures in rockshelters into a single site type (i.e. '(hu)man-made structures') conceals wide variation amongst them. A typology is suggested based on morphological and contextual features to allow better characterisation of these features, thereby improving understandings of their distribution and functions, and facilitating more adequate assessments of their significance in management contexts.
This study investigates the palynological remains (both fossil pollen and charcoal) recovered fro... more This study investigates the palynological remains (both fossil pollen and charcoal) recovered from the Thundiy shell midden deposit, Bentinck Island, Gulf of Carpentaria, northern Australia, to provide a vegetation and fire record for this site, which sheds light on human occupation of the southern Wellesley Archipelago over the late Holocene. Results show that the development of a high-density shell deposit by human activities was directly responsible for pollen preservation, possibly through the creation of a moist, anaerobic environment that reduces oxidation of pollen grains. The presence of recoverable pollen from a shell midden deposit from Bentinck Island provides a valuable new proxy to provide greater context for archaeological records, particularly in terms of local vegetation information and potential insight into human land management practices.
This paper presents an overview of archaeological investigations in the Sir Edward Pellew Islands... more This paper presents an overview of archaeological investigations in the Sir Edward Pellew Islands in the southwest Gulf of Carpentaria, northern Australia, It is argued that Vanderlin Island, like the majority of Australia's offshore islands, attests to a lacuna in human habitation for several thousand years after the marine transgression and consequent insulation c.6700 years ago. With the imminent threat of inundation, people appear to have retreated to higher land, abandoning the peripheral exposed shelf areas; subsequent (re)colonisation of these relict shelf areas in their form as islands took place steadily from c.4200 Bp, with increased intensity of occupation after 1300 BP. Possible links between the timing of island occupation, watercraft technology and the role of climate change are investigated, with more recent changes in the archaeological record of Vanderlin Island also examined in light of cultural contact with Macassans.
Informit is an online service offering a wide range of database and full content publication prod... more Informit is an online service offering a wide range of database and full content publication products that deliver the vast majority of Australasian scholarly research to the education, research and business sectors. Informit is the brand that encompasses RMIT Publishing's online products ...
For several years now the Australian Archaeological Association (AAA) has been expanding its onli... more For several years now the Australian Archaeological Association (AAA) has been expanding its online presence through the Association's website, Facebook page and Twitter account. In order to ascertain whether these activities are worth the investment of time and energy required to pursue and maintain them, an audience survey was undertaken. Coupled with interrogation of Facebook and Twitter user data, the survey results were assessed to understand better AAA's online audience, the value of particular kinds of content, and the online platforms and their use, in order to tailor the Association's efforts. Results show surprising uptake and use by all age groups, despite the common perception that social media users are predominantly 'young'. Our overall assessment is that a strong understanding of one's audience leads to more sophisticated use of online media, which is proving essential to achieving the objects and purposes of the Association in terms of public education and the dissemination of archaeological information, allowing a much broader audience beyond the Association's own membership base to be reached.
This preliminary report describes the initial results from an archaeological survey conducted in ... more This preliminary report describes the initial results from an archaeological survey conducted in the foothills of the Gregory Ranges on Middle Park Station in inland northwest Queensland. Nearly 130 Aboriginal sites were located during the survey, which was carried out as a collaborative project between an archaeologist (LW) and members of the Woolgar Valley Aboriginal Corporation (DS and HS). Sites were dominated by rockshelters containing stenciled art, although open artefact scatters, grinding surfaces, axe grinding grooves and quarries were also present. This project has enabled the Woolgar Valley Aboriginal Corporation to begin compiling a detailed inventory of sites in their traditional country, thereby allowing a better understanding of their cultural heritage and addressing various research oriented questions about the nature of Aboriginal occupation in the region.
In this postmodern World the evocation of ecological approaches in archaeology conjures up vision... more In this postmodern World the evocation of ecological approaches in archaeology conjures up visions of banal environmental determinism and passive human actors receiving their cues fiom terrifying landscapes. And yet
South Wales. Children from the three traditional tribal groups of the Willandra Lakes walk on the... more South Wales. Children from the three traditional tribal groups of the Willandra Lakes walk on the site of what promises to be the world's largest collection of Pleistocene human footprints in the world (photograph courtesy of Michael Amendolia).
... 1 Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australial... more ... 1 Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, [email protected][email protected] 2 Aboriginal Environments Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia 3 Research ...
Page 1. 63 Number 62, June 2006 PORTONIAN RESPECTABILITY: WORKING-CLASS ATTITUDES TO RESPECTABILI... more Page 1. 63 Number 62, June 2006 PORTONIAN RESPECTABILITY: WORKING-CLASS ATTITUDES TO RESPECTABILITY IN PORT ADELAIDE THROUGH MATERIAL CULTURE, 18401900 Susan Briggs PhD, Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, August 2005 ...
Examination of a phytolith assemblage from the archaeological site of Carpenter's Gap 1 provides ... more Examination of a phytolith assemblage from the archaeological site of Carpenter's Gap 1 provides an hitherto unrecognised source of vegetation history for the tropical savannah region of north western Australia. Two predominant mechanisms contributed to the formation of the phytolith assemblage: firstly, the introduction of phytoliths in plant materials brought in by humans, and, secondly, the introduction of phytoliths contained in faecal pellets deposited by animals. Separating the effects of both mechanisms enables local vegetation patterns, and, by inference, climatic conditions, to be reconstructed. The period ca. 40,000 years BP was probably wetter than today, allowing the southerly expansion of palms beyond their present day distribution. Grassland compositional changes occurred by ca. 33,000 years BP, probably resulting from a combination of lowered rainfall, decreased temperatures and possibly Aboriginal firing activities. A reduction in palm at a similar time, followed by its complete disappearance, in association with the loss of Ulmaceae prior to the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) indicates a continued trend in decreasing water availability. An abundance of Cyperaceae, sponge spicules and diatoms during the LGM, when considered in conjunction with the other evidence, possibly represents altered human behaviour in response to increased aridity.
Clarkson, C. and Wallis, Lynley (2003). The search for El Nino/Southern Oscillation in archaeolog... more Clarkson, C. and Wallis, Lynley (2003). The search for El Nino/Southern Oscillation in archaeological Sites: Recent results from Jugali-Ya Rockshelter, Wardaman Country, Australia. In DM Hart and LA Wallis (Ed.), Phytolith and starch research in the Australian-Pacific-Asian regions : the ...
In regions that lack built structures or stratified open archaeological sites, such as precolonia... more In regions that lack built structures or stratified open archaeological sites, such as precolonial Australia, rockshelters are a major source of detailed information for understanding the nature and timing of human occupation. A key concern is that the proposed ages for the earliest archaeological sites are based on luminescence dating of sediments, rather than directly of cultural materials, leaving the association between the sediments and evidence of human activity questionable. Here, we present evidence of magnetic enhancement associated with cultural horizons within the deposits of a Pleistocene rockshelter in interior northern Queensland. Soil magnetic studies combined with experimental burning show that magnetically enhanced sediments in Gledswood Shelter 1 are the result of anthropogenic burning of hearth fires, which burn hotter and for a longer time than natural wild fires. These techniques appear to work in this setting because of the nature of the local geology and the geological antiquity of the landscape. Susceptibility and frequency dependence of susceptibility signatures provide a critical tool to resolve that human occupation starts at 2.2 m depth within a stratigraphic section. In conjunction with luminescence dating, soil magnetic studies provide an opportunity for archaeologists to resolve the timing of human settlement in Australia and other intracratonic plate settings.
fall and drought where they can survive in a state of dormancy until favorable conditions return.... more fall and drought where they can survive in a state of dormancy until favorable conditions return. Spinifex species are usually divided into two informal groups based on their different growth forms, distributions and physiology. The so-called 'hard' species (which include, among others, Triodia basedowii E.Pritz., Triodia irritans R.Br., Triodia longiceps J.M.Black and Triodia wiseana C.A.Gardner) have closely packed, rigid leaves which are almost impossible to touch, while 'soft' species (which include, among others, Triodia bynoei (C.E.Hubb.) Lazarides, Triodia helmsii (C.E.Hubb.) Lazarides, Triodia microstachya R.Br. and Triodia pungens R.Br.) have relatively loosely arranged, less rigid leaves that can be comparatively more easily handled. Soft species tend to be more common in the northern half of the continent where they form a more or less continuous cover, rather than the discrete, rounded hummock habit of the hard species (Moore 2005:210; see Figure 1). The primary difference between the soft and hard spinifex groups relates to their ability to produce resin. As detailed by Burbidge (1946),
Ngarrindjeri Vision for Country Our Lands, Our Waters, Our People, All Living Things are connecte... more Ngarrindjeri Vision for Country Our Lands, Our Waters, Our People, All Living Things are connected. We implore people to respect our Ruwe (Country) as it was created in the Kaldowinyeri (the Creation). We long for sparkling, clean waters, healthy land and people and all living things. We long for the Yarluwar-Ruwe (Sea Country) of our ancestors. Our vision is all people Caring, Sharing, Knowing and Respecting the lands, the waters and all living things. 1 We ask non-Indigenous people to respect and understand our traditions, our rights and our responsibilities according to Ngarrindjeri laws and to realise that what affects us, will eventually affect them. 2
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