Besner, N. R. & Son, L. K. (2007). Underlying mechanisms of initial feelings of knowing in childr... more Besner, N. R. & Son, L. K. (2007). Underlying mechanisms of initial feelings of knowing in children. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,
This article describes River Summer, an interdisciplinary, field project on the Hudson River. Usi... more This article describes River Summer, an interdisciplinary, field project on the Hudson River. Using cognitive data, the team aimed to design an experience that fostered an environment implementing strategies that improve learning. The participants, 40 faculty members from 24 institutions who acted as teachers, students, or both, boarded the Seawolf, the vessel on which the course was situated. River's objectives included lessons for analyzing various aspects of and promoting awareness for the Hudson and its watershed as a natural and cultural environment. Most importantly, this paper illustrates River's incorporation of metacognitive strategies as an effective teaching and learning tool.
This study investigates whether the use of a spacing strategy absolutely improves final performan... more This study investigates whether the use of a spacing strategy absolutely improves final performance, even when the learner had chosen, metacognitively, to mass. After making judgments of learning, adult and child participants chose to mass or space their study of word pairs. However, a third of their choices were dishonored. That is, they were forced to mass after having chosen to space and forced to space after having chosen to mass. Results showed that the spacing effect obtained for both adults and children when choices were honored. However, using a spacing strategy when it was in disagreement with one’s own choice, or forced, did not enhance performance for the adults (Experiment 1). And although it was enhanced for the children (beyond massing strategies), the performance was not as good as that when the spacing decisions were self-chosen (Experiment 2). The data suggest that although spacing is an effective strategy for learning, it is not universal, particularly when the str...
Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf ... more Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution , reselling , loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
In three experiments, learning performance in a 6-or 7-week cognitive-science based computer-stud... more In three experiments, learning performance in a 6-or 7-week cognitive-science based computer-study programme was compared to equal time spent self-studying on paper. The first two experiments were conducted with grade 6 and 7 children in a high risk educational setting, the third with Columbia University undergraduates. The principles the programme implemented included (1) deep, meaningful, elaborative, multimodal processing, (2) transfer-appropriate processing, (3) selfgeneration and multiple testing of responses, and (4) spaced practice. The programme was also designed to thwart metacognitive illusions that would otherwise lead to inappropriate study patterns. All three experiments showed a distinct advantage in final test performance for the cognitive-science based programme, but this advantage was particularly prominent in the children. A basic foundation for school accomplishment is the availability of higher order cognitive and metacognitive competencies to realistically assess one's knowledge, to allocate and organise study time and effort optimally, to apply cognitive principles (such as deep, elaborative rehearsal, self-generation, testing, and spacing of practice, to name just a few) that effectively enhance
Metacognition is knowledge that can be expressed as confidence judgments about what we know (moni... more Metacognition is knowledge that can be expressed as confidence judgments about what we know (monitoring) and by strategies for learning what we don't know (control). Although a substantial literature exists on cognitive processes in animals, little is known about their metacognitive abilities. Here we show that rhesus macaques, trained previously to make retrospective confidence judgments about their performance on perceptual tasks, transferred that ability immediately to a new perceptual task and to a working memory task. In a second experiment we show that monkeys can also learn to request "hints" when they are given problems that they would otherwise have to solve by trial and error. This shows, for the first time, that non-human primates share with humans the ability to monitor and transfer their metacognitive ability both within and between different cognitive tasks, and to seek new knowledge on a need to know basis.
Learners of all ages face complex decisions about how to study effectively. Here we investigated ... more Learners of all ages face complex decisions about how to study effectively. Here we investigated three such decisions made in concert—time allocation, ordering, and spacing. First, college students were presented with, and made judgments of learning about, 16 word-synonym pairs. Then, when presented with all 16 pairs, they created their own study schedule by choosing when and how long to
Against intuition, a set of "desirable difficulties" has been touted as a way in which to improve... more Against intuition, a set of "desirable difficulties" has been touted as a way in which to improve learning and lengthen retention. This includes, for instance, varying the conditions of learning to allow for more active, effortful, or challenging, contexts. In the current paper, we introduce data that show that, on the contrary, learning to know when to take the easy road may be crucial when it comes to avoiding "laboring in vain." We presented participants with prior problemseither easy or difficultfollowed by choices of selecting an easy or a difficult current problem. Our primary goal was to examine the notion that past failures (which are more likely on the difficult prior items) may be a basis for allowing learners to then choose the easy rather than the difficult current problem. In other words, if one has labored in vain already, the easier items may now be more desirable. In addition, we compare the selections that are made between incremental and entity perspectives, given their fundamentally opposing views on effort. Our results showed that, interestingly, incremental theorists, who generally are proponents of effort, were more likely to select the easy problems, but only when they had experienced failure on prior, and similar, difficult tasks. We interpret these data to suggest that those holding an incremental view may be more in tune with their past efforts, resulting in a Metacognition-by-Experience, or ME strategy, and also hint at its generalizability through crosscultural comparisons.
ABSTRACT The chapter shows a paradigm that has the potential to reveal true metacognition in anim... more ABSTRACT The chapter shows a paradigm that has the potential to reveal true metacognition in animals. The main controversies surrounding Smith's paradigm centered on whether what he referred to as metacognitive judgments were simply judgments of extant stimuli that are present when the subject responds uncertain. By using a modified version of the match-to-sample paradigm, this chapter shows that the star monkey in the experiment was able to make valid metacognitive judgments. The chapter outlines a framework that makes tests for memory awareness in nonhumans possible and describes some of the behaviors of nonhuman behavior that are difficult to explain. There are both conceptual and experimental issues regarding the validity of the concept of memory awareness in nonhuman animals. It will always remain a matter of conjecture whether monkeys experience conscious states of knowing like humans. There is a need to put aside introspection, treat self-reflection as a biological mechanism and focus on what self-reflect.
People have a remarkable long-term memory for scenes and objects - recognizing thousands of image... more People have a remarkable long-term memory for scenes and objects - recognizing thousands of images from only a few moments of study each. We asked whether this visual memory capacity is associated with any metacognitive functions: What sense do viewers have of their abilities to encode - and subsequently access - such large numbers of stimuli? We tested whether allowing participants to control the time studying each image (self-paced) would - relative to fixed display durations (computer-paced) - increase their performance in a 2AFC old-new recognition test. We also tested whether participants had some metacognitive knowledge about their visual memory traces, through their 'bets' on having successfully recognized each item. In Experiment 1, when participants were allowed an average of two seconds of study for each item, recognition performance was significantly higher for self-paced than computer-paced study items. In the self-paced condition, the amount of time studying items was not only a significant predictor of their successful recognition but also of viewers' metacognitive awareness (i.e. confidence) about their accuracy. Studying objects again in Experiment 2 and individual people in Experiment 3, participants completed a self-paced block on Day 1 with unlimited study time, and completed a computer-paced block using the average of their self-paced study time on Day 8. Although performance was again higher after the self-paced study of objects in Experiment 2, such was not the case when controlling their study of people in Experiment 3 - perhaps complicated by factors such as attractiveness and distinctiveness. In both Experiment 2 and 3, the amount of time studying each item was again not only a significant predictor of recognition accuracy, but also of participants' confidence in their identification. The study of visual material may be profitably informed by metacognitive control and during retrieval later by metacognitive monitoring. Meeting abstract presented at VSS 2015.
Besner, N. R. & Son, L. K. (2007). Underlying mechanisms of initial feelings of knowing in childr... more Besner, N. R. & Son, L. K. (2007). Underlying mechanisms of initial feelings of knowing in children. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,
This article describes River Summer, an interdisciplinary, field project on the Hudson River. Usi... more This article describes River Summer, an interdisciplinary, field project on the Hudson River. Using cognitive data, the team aimed to design an experience that fostered an environment implementing strategies that improve learning. The participants, 40 faculty members from 24 institutions who acted as teachers, students, or both, boarded the Seawolf, the vessel on which the course was situated. River's objectives included lessons for analyzing various aspects of and promoting awareness for the Hudson and its watershed as a natural and cultural environment. Most importantly, this paper illustrates River's incorporation of metacognitive strategies as an effective teaching and learning tool.
This study investigates whether the use of a spacing strategy absolutely improves final performan... more This study investigates whether the use of a spacing strategy absolutely improves final performance, even when the learner had chosen, metacognitively, to mass. After making judgments of learning, adult and child participants chose to mass or space their study of word pairs. However, a third of their choices were dishonored. That is, they were forced to mass after having chosen to space and forced to space after having chosen to mass. Results showed that the spacing effect obtained for both adults and children when choices were honored. However, using a spacing strategy when it was in disagreement with one’s own choice, or forced, did not enhance performance for the adults (Experiment 1). And although it was enhanced for the children (beyond massing strategies), the performance was not as good as that when the spacing decisions were self-chosen (Experiment 2). The data suggest that although spacing is an effective strategy for learning, it is not universal, particularly when the str...
Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf ... more Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution , reselling , loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
In three experiments, learning performance in a 6-or 7-week cognitive-science based computer-stud... more In three experiments, learning performance in a 6-or 7-week cognitive-science based computer-study programme was compared to equal time spent self-studying on paper. The first two experiments were conducted with grade 6 and 7 children in a high risk educational setting, the third with Columbia University undergraduates. The principles the programme implemented included (1) deep, meaningful, elaborative, multimodal processing, (2) transfer-appropriate processing, (3) selfgeneration and multiple testing of responses, and (4) spaced practice. The programme was also designed to thwart metacognitive illusions that would otherwise lead to inappropriate study patterns. All three experiments showed a distinct advantage in final test performance for the cognitive-science based programme, but this advantage was particularly prominent in the children. A basic foundation for school accomplishment is the availability of higher order cognitive and metacognitive competencies to realistically assess one's knowledge, to allocate and organise study time and effort optimally, to apply cognitive principles (such as deep, elaborative rehearsal, self-generation, testing, and spacing of practice, to name just a few) that effectively enhance
Metacognition is knowledge that can be expressed as confidence judgments about what we know (moni... more Metacognition is knowledge that can be expressed as confidence judgments about what we know (monitoring) and by strategies for learning what we don't know (control). Although a substantial literature exists on cognitive processes in animals, little is known about their metacognitive abilities. Here we show that rhesus macaques, trained previously to make retrospective confidence judgments about their performance on perceptual tasks, transferred that ability immediately to a new perceptual task and to a working memory task. In a second experiment we show that monkeys can also learn to request "hints" when they are given problems that they would otherwise have to solve by trial and error. This shows, for the first time, that non-human primates share with humans the ability to monitor and transfer their metacognitive ability both within and between different cognitive tasks, and to seek new knowledge on a need to know basis.
Learners of all ages face complex decisions about how to study effectively. Here we investigated ... more Learners of all ages face complex decisions about how to study effectively. Here we investigated three such decisions made in concert—time allocation, ordering, and spacing. First, college students were presented with, and made judgments of learning about, 16 word-synonym pairs. Then, when presented with all 16 pairs, they created their own study schedule by choosing when and how long to
Against intuition, a set of "desirable difficulties" has been touted as a way in which to improve... more Against intuition, a set of "desirable difficulties" has been touted as a way in which to improve learning and lengthen retention. This includes, for instance, varying the conditions of learning to allow for more active, effortful, or challenging, contexts. In the current paper, we introduce data that show that, on the contrary, learning to know when to take the easy road may be crucial when it comes to avoiding "laboring in vain." We presented participants with prior problemseither easy or difficultfollowed by choices of selecting an easy or a difficult current problem. Our primary goal was to examine the notion that past failures (which are more likely on the difficult prior items) may be a basis for allowing learners to then choose the easy rather than the difficult current problem. In other words, if one has labored in vain already, the easier items may now be more desirable. In addition, we compare the selections that are made between incremental and entity perspectives, given their fundamentally opposing views on effort. Our results showed that, interestingly, incremental theorists, who generally are proponents of effort, were more likely to select the easy problems, but only when they had experienced failure on prior, and similar, difficult tasks. We interpret these data to suggest that those holding an incremental view may be more in tune with their past efforts, resulting in a Metacognition-by-Experience, or ME strategy, and also hint at its generalizability through crosscultural comparisons.
ABSTRACT The chapter shows a paradigm that has the potential to reveal true metacognition in anim... more ABSTRACT The chapter shows a paradigm that has the potential to reveal true metacognition in animals. The main controversies surrounding Smith's paradigm centered on whether what he referred to as metacognitive judgments were simply judgments of extant stimuli that are present when the subject responds uncertain. By using a modified version of the match-to-sample paradigm, this chapter shows that the star monkey in the experiment was able to make valid metacognitive judgments. The chapter outlines a framework that makes tests for memory awareness in nonhumans possible and describes some of the behaviors of nonhuman behavior that are difficult to explain. There are both conceptual and experimental issues regarding the validity of the concept of memory awareness in nonhuman animals. It will always remain a matter of conjecture whether monkeys experience conscious states of knowing like humans. There is a need to put aside introspection, treat self-reflection as a biological mechanism and focus on what self-reflect.
People have a remarkable long-term memory for scenes and objects - recognizing thousands of image... more People have a remarkable long-term memory for scenes and objects - recognizing thousands of images from only a few moments of study each. We asked whether this visual memory capacity is associated with any metacognitive functions: What sense do viewers have of their abilities to encode - and subsequently access - such large numbers of stimuli? We tested whether allowing participants to control the time studying each image (self-paced) would - relative to fixed display durations (computer-paced) - increase their performance in a 2AFC old-new recognition test. We also tested whether participants had some metacognitive knowledge about their visual memory traces, through their 'bets' on having successfully recognized each item. In Experiment 1, when participants were allowed an average of two seconds of study for each item, recognition performance was significantly higher for self-paced than computer-paced study items. In the self-paced condition, the amount of time studying items was not only a significant predictor of their successful recognition but also of viewers' metacognitive awareness (i.e. confidence) about their accuracy. Studying objects again in Experiment 2 and individual people in Experiment 3, participants completed a self-paced block on Day 1 with unlimited study time, and completed a computer-paced block using the average of their self-paced study time on Day 8. Although performance was again higher after the self-paced study of objects in Experiment 2, such was not the case when controlling their study of people in Experiment 3 - perhaps complicated by factors such as attractiveness and distinctiveness. In both Experiment 2 and 3, the amount of time studying each item was again not only a significant predictor of recognition accuracy, but also of participants' confidence in their identification. The study of visual material may be profitably informed by metacognitive control and during retrieval later by metacognitive monitoring. Meeting abstract presented at VSS 2015.
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