There has been a flood of speculation, analysis, predictions and dire warnings about the possible... more There has been a flood of speculation, analysis, predictions and dire warnings about the possible economic and political consequences of the secession of the United Kingdom from the European Union (“Brexit”) for Northern Ireland. Much of this commentary focuses on the possible effects on trade, the movement of persons, foreign direct investment, and European Union funding that NI will experience after leaving the EU Single Market. This study explores these salient areas of political-economic concern. The evidence suggests that the UK exit from the EU will translate into a significant reduction in Northern Ireland’s gross product and proportionate decreases in employment due to effects on cross-border trade and economic cooperation, direct foreign investment, and the loss of EU peace and economic development funding.
Many factors potentially affect REOs’ decisions when confronted with conventional security challe... more Many factors potentially affect REOs’ decisions when confronted with conventional security challenges. When Member States are threatened and Great Powers and global institutions decline to intervene, REOs take on conventional security tasks out of necessity even when they are institutionally undeveloped and Member States are relatively poor and weak. This chapter summarizes how the findings of this study confirm or call into question various literatures on this subject. REOs often undertake conventional security functions to preclude or manage external powers’ intervention in the region. REOs also undertake conventional security tasks because they assume that the security challenge can only be resolved on a regional basis. As security threats multiply and REOs proliferate and become more sophisticated, a network of REOs is being called upon to replace the post-World War II security architecture.
This chapter considers the EC’s response to conflict in Yugoslavia in 1990–1991. Initially, EC me... more This chapter considers the EC’s response to conflict in Yugoslavia in 1990–1991. Initially, EC members did not recognize the crisis’ potential for violence. However, previous economic and political achievements and a desire to put in place a Common Foreign and Security Policy and enhance its global reputation encouraged the EC to engage this security challenge. In the end, the EC could only agree to devote diplomatic attention to the problem, mediate, impose an arms embargo, and curtail financial support; no member was willing to commit peacekeeping forces without Serbian acquiescence and an effective ceasefire in place. The EC called upon the UN to assume responsibility for the conflict, in what is regarded as a policy failure and a turning point in the REO’s development.
Regional Economic Organizations and Conventional Security Challenges, 2017
While the fundamental goals of REOs including promoting economic growth, development, and integra... more While the fundamental goals of REOs including promoting economic growth, development, and integration persist over time, regional organizations are susceptible to major change when confronted with security threats. Several terms including “crises” and “critical junctures” are used to capture these phenomena and scholars suggest that systemic and other constraints may be relaxed during these periods, permitting idiosyncratic factors greater sway. That having been said, systemic, organizational, and ideational factors must be taken into account to understand actors’ decisions regarding organizational change. Propositions related to systemic and other power-related factors, organizational factors and functional needs, and ideational and social factors explicated in the International Relations, regional integration, and security literatures are discussed in this chapter.
C:\2-level\draft2.wps Multi-level and Cross-level Governance and the Implementation and Revision ... more C:\2-level\draft2.wps Multi-level and Cross-level Governance and the Implementation and Revision of European Union (EU) Water Legislation M. Leann Brown Associate Professor Department of Political Science University of Florida Gainesville, FL 32611-2036 telephone: 352 ...
Introduction Explaining Regional Economic Cooperation: The Case for a Cognitive Framing Model The... more Introduction Explaining Regional Economic Cooperation: The Case for a Cognitive Framing Model The Andean Case: The 1976 Chilean Decision to Withdraw from the Pact The ECOWAS Case: The 1983 Nigerian Decision to Expel Alien Workers The ASEAN Case: The 1977 Philippine Decision Concerning Sabah Conclusions and Policy Recommendations Appendix References
Scientific uncertainty characterizes policymaking in many environmental issue areas. Policymakers... more Scientific uncertainty characterizes policymaking in many environmental issue areas. Policymakers must rely on scientists t o bring environmental problems to their attention, design and prescribe policy solutions, and to define and evaluate policy effectiveness. An important theoretical question is: What role does organizational learning play in amelioration of scientific uncertainty and shaping environmental policy. This study examines the political processes and policy outcomes associated with European Union policymaking to revise water quality directives and deal with climate change to ascertain and describe the role played b y organizational learning. The evidence suggests that organizational learning is occurring as an integral part of the political dynamics of policymaking in these two issue areas.
Regional Economic Organizations and Conventional Security Challenges, 2017
This chapter examines ASEANs’ response to the Vietnamese military invasion of Cambodia between 19... more This chapter examines ASEANs’ response to the Vietnamese military invasion of Cambodia between 1978 and 1991. Despite the fact that ASEAN began as an economic and cultural cooperative entity in 1967, the primary successes of its first decade lay in its providing a means whereby Member States could manage intraregional disputes and the stresses of the Cold War. Vietnam’s invasion of Cambodia constituted a turning point in the Association’s willingness to assume leadership to address conventional security threats. The conflict in Cambodia was perceived as a genuine security threat to ASEAN Member States and to the political and economic goals of the organization. ASEAN employed diplomacy to contain Vietnamese influence in Cambodia while seeking to manage fractious politics within Cambodia and ASEAN itself, laying the foundation for a nascent security community in Southeast Asia.
International Environmental Politics: The Limits of Green Diplomacy. By Lee-Anne Broadhead. Bould... more International Environmental Politics: The Limits of Green Diplomacy. By Lee-Anne Broadhead. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002. 240 pp., $55.00 cloth (ISBN: 1-58826-092-5), $19.95 paper (ISBN:1-58826-068-2). The articulated mission of International Environmental Politics: The Limits of Green Diplomacy stems from critical theory's admonition “to comprehend the given society, [to] criticize its contradictions and failures, and to construct alternatives.” (Kellner 1984:122–123, Broadhead's emphasis, quoted on p. xi). From this perspective, Lee-Anne Broadhead's book serves the useful and necessary purpose of criticizing incremental intergovernmental approaches to environmental policymaking. However, the book is less successful in either the first or the third aspects of its mission. It does little to foster an increased understanding of “green diplomacy” or international regime theories or to offer robust alternative remedies for environmental problems. Operating in the spirit of the Frankfurt School (that is, the work of Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, and Jurgen Habermas among others), Broadhead takes issue with much of the existing world order, beginning with the eighteenth-century Enlightenment. In her view, the instrumental rationality of the Enlightenment, its manifestation in Western science, its celebration of technology, and its conceptualization of the natural environment serve as foundations for economic liberalism, environmental degradation, international regime theory, and counterproductive green diplomacy. The distinctions between instrumental and ecological rationality are only partially explicated by Broadhead. In essence, instrumental rationality has to do with disaggregation, focusing attention on one issue at a time rather than taking a holistic approach. Despite this superficial treatment, Broadhead designates the Enlightenment's enshrinement of instrumental rationality as the crux of the problem. Acknowledging the important role that scientists within epistemic communities play in creating environmental regimes, Broadhead argues that the solutions provided by mainstream science are misleading. They blind us to …
Governance for the Environment: New Perspectives. Edited by Delmas Magali A, Young Oran R.. Cambr... more Governance for the Environment: New Perspectives. Edited by Delmas Magali A, Young Oran R.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. 288 pp., $35.00 paperback (ISBN 978-0521743006). International Politics and the Environment. By Mitchell Ronald B.. London: Sage Publications Ltd, 2010. 234 pp., $51.00 paperback (ISBN 978-1412919753). Managers of Global Change: The Influence of International Environmental Bureaucracies. Edited by Biermann Frank, Siebenhuner Bernd. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2009. 367 pp., $28.00 paperback (ISBN 978-0262012744). These three volumes are complementary in many ways, particularly with regard to scale of analysis: the Cambridge publication by Delmas and Young adopts the widest lens—a global governance perspective; the Sage book by Mitchell provides an interstate, policy stages framework; and the MIT offering by Biermann and Siebenhuner directs our attention to new empirical data regarding the bureaucracies of nine intergovernmental environmental organizations. The Delmas and Young contribution, Governance for the Environment: New Perspectives , points out that the need for environmental governance is increasing even as confidence in the global capacity to address this need is declining. After a general discussion of the concepts and literatures associated with “governance for sustainable development” by the editors, three chapters outline what the economics, political science, and the management literatures offer in terms of addressing the “governance deficit” and achieving sustainable development. Chapters 5–7 then respond to the decentralizing tendencies associated with neoliberalism and globalizations and discuss the increasingly important roles played by transnational nonstate and market-oriented actors in environmental governance. These chapters make clear that environmental governance must be designed to coincide with specific issue areas and empirical contexts. Public actors, business firms, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) all have roles to play in achieving effective global governance. These chapters are the most cutting-edge aspect of the work. Much of contemporary conversation regarding global environment governance is about context-specific, nonstate-driven, consensual and voluntary alternatives to hierarchical and regulatory-oriented governance, including discussions of network governance and “new instruments” of environmental governance such as codes of conduct, certification schemes, eco-taxes, tradable permits, voluntary agreements, and eco-labels (see, for example, Jordan, Wurzel, and Zito 2003; Jordan and Schout 2006). This volume explains that inadequate environmental governance is a consequence of governments’ as well as market failures. Hybrid arrangements in which several forms of governance …
Regional Economic Organizations and Conventional Security Challenges, 2017
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this p... more The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
Before the promulgation of the 1987 Single European Act (SEA), the European Communities (EC) had ... more Before the promulgation of the 1987 Single European Act (SEA), the European Communities (EC) had undertaken three multi-year Environmental Action Programmes and generated more than 100 measures to coordinate and harmonize environmental protection. However, the 1957 Treaty of Rome, the legal basis for the organization, did not authorize joint action in the area of environmental protection. Pre-1987 environmental legislation was justified on the grounds that divergent environmental regulations in the Member States distorted trade competition and constituted a non-tariff barrier to free trade, and that the Treaty specified as objectives the promotion of "an accelerated raising of the standard of living" and the improvement of the living and working conditions of EC citizens. The SEA represented a seachange in the legal mandate of the organization in that it amended the Treaty of Rome to require that environmental protection be incorporated into every aspect of Community polic...
During the past 25 years, there have been several efforts by developing countries to establish re... more During the past 25 years, there have been several efforts by developing countries to establish regional economic institutions to address their poverty, underdevelopment, and external dependency. Although the economic imperatives and rationales for their creation intuitively seemed sufficient to ensure that the national political leaderships would choose to engage in whatever give-and-take was necessary to achieve their stated goals, the historical record reveals that these regional organisations have experienced uneven results at best. Several are now defunct. Why is this the case?
Some recent scholarship has focused on concerns that implementation and compliance difficulties a... more Some recent scholarship has focused on concerns that implementation and compliance difficulties are undermining the legitimacy of European Union environmental policies and even the EU itself. Other officials and analysts, however, contend that environmental policy is one of the EU's most successful policy areas. While most discuss "legitimacy" in unspecified and/or absolutist terms, it is instead a more nuanced and contested concept. This paper investigates several evolving and interacting bases of legitimacies associated with "permissive acceptance" (based upon functionalist criteria, expert and technical authority, and policy effectiveness), "appropriateness" (based upon value and norm consensus and legalization), active commitment (based upon democratic processes), and identity (based upon global leadership, among other factors). These legitimacies vary in terms of their strength, stability and durability and among the multiple European actors and institutions.
Some recent scholarship has focused on concerns that implementation and compliance difficulties a... more Some recent scholarship has focused on concerns that implementation and compliance difficulties are undermining the legitimacy of European Union environmental policies and even the EU itself. Other officials and analysts, however, contend that environmental policy is one of the EU's most successful policy areas. While most discuss "legitimacy" in unspecified and/or absolutist terms, it is instead a more nuanced and contested concept. This paper investigates several evolving and interacting bases of legitimacies associated with "permissive acceptance" (based upon functionalist criteria, expert and technical authority, and policy effectiveness), "appropriateness" (based upon value and norm consensus and legalization), active commitment (based upon democratic processes), and identity (based upon global leadership, among other factors). These legitimacies vary in terms of their strength, stability and durability and among the multiple European actors and institutions.
There has been a flood of speculation, analysis, predictions and dire warnings about the possible... more There has been a flood of speculation, analysis, predictions and dire warnings about the possible economic and political consequences of the secession of the United Kingdom from the European Union (“Brexit”) for Northern Ireland. Much of this commentary focuses on the possible effects on trade, the movement of persons, foreign direct investment, and European Union funding that NI will experience after leaving the EU Single Market. This study explores these salient areas of political-economic concern. The evidence suggests that the UK exit from the EU will translate into a significant reduction in Northern Ireland’s gross product and proportionate decreases in employment due to effects on cross-border trade and economic cooperation, direct foreign investment, and the loss of EU peace and economic development funding.
Many factors potentially affect REOs’ decisions when confronted with conventional security challe... more Many factors potentially affect REOs’ decisions when confronted with conventional security challenges. When Member States are threatened and Great Powers and global institutions decline to intervene, REOs take on conventional security tasks out of necessity even when they are institutionally undeveloped and Member States are relatively poor and weak. This chapter summarizes how the findings of this study confirm or call into question various literatures on this subject. REOs often undertake conventional security functions to preclude or manage external powers’ intervention in the region. REOs also undertake conventional security tasks because they assume that the security challenge can only be resolved on a regional basis. As security threats multiply and REOs proliferate and become more sophisticated, a network of REOs is being called upon to replace the post-World War II security architecture.
This chapter considers the EC’s response to conflict in Yugoslavia in 1990–1991. Initially, EC me... more This chapter considers the EC’s response to conflict in Yugoslavia in 1990–1991. Initially, EC members did not recognize the crisis’ potential for violence. However, previous economic and political achievements and a desire to put in place a Common Foreign and Security Policy and enhance its global reputation encouraged the EC to engage this security challenge. In the end, the EC could only agree to devote diplomatic attention to the problem, mediate, impose an arms embargo, and curtail financial support; no member was willing to commit peacekeeping forces without Serbian acquiescence and an effective ceasefire in place. The EC called upon the UN to assume responsibility for the conflict, in what is regarded as a policy failure and a turning point in the REO’s development.
Regional Economic Organizations and Conventional Security Challenges, 2017
While the fundamental goals of REOs including promoting economic growth, development, and integra... more While the fundamental goals of REOs including promoting economic growth, development, and integration persist over time, regional organizations are susceptible to major change when confronted with security threats. Several terms including “crises” and “critical junctures” are used to capture these phenomena and scholars suggest that systemic and other constraints may be relaxed during these periods, permitting idiosyncratic factors greater sway. That having been said, systemic, organizational, and ideational factors must be taken into account to understand actors’ decisions regarding organizational change. Propositions related to systemic and other power-related factors, organizational factors and functional needs, and ideational and social factors explicated in the International Relations, regional integration, and security literatures are discussed in this chapter.
C:\2-level\draft2.wps Multi-level and Cross-level Governance and the Implementation and Revision ... more C:\2-level\draft2.wps Multi-level and Cross-level Governance and the Implementation and Revision of European Union (EU) Water Legislation M. Leann Brown Associate Professor Department of Political Science University of Florida Gainesville, FL 32611-2036 telephone: 352 ...
Introduction Explaining Regional Economic Cooperation: The Case for a Cognitive Framing Model The... more Introduction Explaining Regional Economic Cooperation: The Case for a Cognitive Framing Model The Andean Case: The 1976 Chilean Decision to Withdraw from the Pact The ECOWAS Case: The 1983 Nigerian Decision to Expel Alien Workers The ASEAN Case: The 1977 Philippine Decision Concerning Sabah Conclusions and Policy Recommendations Appendix References
Scientific uncertainty characterizes policymaking in many environmental issue areas. Policymakers... more Scientific uncertainty characterizes policymaking in many environmental issue areas. Policymakers must rely on scientists t o bring environmental problems to their attention, design and prescribe policy solutions, and to define and evaluate policy effectiveness. An important theoretical question is: What role does organizational learning play in amelioration of scientific uncertainty and shaping environmental policy. This study examines the political processes and policy outcomes associated with European Union policymaking to revise water quality directives and deal with climate change to ascertain and describe the role played b y organizational learning. The evidence suggests that organizational learning is occurring as an integral part of the political dynamics of policymaking in these two issue areas.
Regional Economic Organizations and Conventional Security Challenges, 2017
This chapter examines ASEANs’ response to the Vietnamese military invasion of Cambodia between 19... more This chapter examines ASEANs’ response to the Vietnamese military invasion of Cambodia between 1978 and 1991. Despite the fact that ASEAN began as an economic and cultural cooperative entity in 1967, the primary successes of its first decade lay in its providing a means whereby Member States could manage intraregional disputes and the stresses of the Cold War. Vietnam’s invasion of Cambodia constituted a turning point in the Association’s willingness to assume leadership to address conventional security threats. The conflict in Cambodia was perceived as a genuine security threat to ASEAN Member States and to the political and economic goals of the organization. ASEAN employed diplomacy to contain Vietnamese influence in Cambodia while seeking to manage fractious politics within Cambodia and ASEAN itself, laying the foundation for a nascent security community in Southeast Asia.
International Environmental Politics: The Limits of Green Diplomacy. By Lee-Anne Broadhead. Bould... more International Environmental Politics: The Limits of Green Diplomacy. By Lee-Anne Broadhead. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002. 240 pp., $55.00 cloth (ISBN: 1-58826-092-5), $19.95 paper (ISBN:1-58826-068-2). The articulated mission of International Environmental Politics: The Limits of Green Diplomacy stems from critical theory's admonition “to comprehend the given society, [to] criticize its contradictions and failures, and to construct alternatives.” (Kellner 1984:122–123, Broadhead's emphasis, quoted on p. xi). From this perspective, Lee-Anne Broadhead's book serves the useful and necessary purpose of criticizing incremental intergovernmental approaches to environmental policymaking. However, the book is less successful in either the first or the third aspects of its mission. It does little to foster an increased understanding of “green diplomacy” or international regime theories or to offer robust alternative remedies for environmental problems. Operating in the spirit of the Frankfurt School (that is, the work of Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, and Jurgen Habermas among others), Broadhead takes issue with much of the existing world order, beginning with the eighteenth-century Enlightenment. In her view, the instrumental rationality of the Enlightenment, its manifestation in Western science, its celebration of technology, and its conceptualization of the natural environment serve as foundations for economic liberalism, environmental degradation, international regime theory, and counterproductive green diplomacy. The distinctions between instrumental and ecological rationality are only partially explicated by Broadhead. In essence, instrumental rationality has to do with disaggregation, focusing attention on one issue at a time rather than taking a holistic approach. Despite this superficial treatment, Broadhead designates the Enlightenment's enshrinement of instrumental rationality as the crux of the problem. Acknowledging the important role that scientists within epistemic communities play in creating environmental regimes, Broadhead argues that the solutions provided by mainstream science are misleading. They blind us to …
Governance for the Environment: New Perspectives. Edited by Delmas Magali A, Young Oran R.. Cambr... more Governance for the Environment: New Perspectives. Edited by Delmas Magali A, Young Oran R.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. 288 pp., $35.00 paperback (ISBN 978-0521743006). International Politics and the Environment. By Mitchell Ronald B.. London: Sage Publications Ltd, 2010. 234 pp., $51.00 paperback (ISBN 978-1412919753). Managers of Global Change: The Influence of International Environmental Bureaucracies. Edited by Biermann Frank, Siebenhuner Bernd. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2009. 367 pp., $28.00 paperback (ISBN 978-0262012744). These three volumes are complementary in many ways, particularly with regard to scale of analysis: the Cambridge publication by Delmas and Young adopts the widest lens—a global governance perspective; the Sage book by Mitchell provides an interstate, policy stages framework; and the MIT offering by Biermann and Siebenhuner directs our attention to new empirical data regarding the bureaucracies of nine intergovernmental environmental organizations. The Delmas and Young contribution, Governance for the Environment: New Perspectives , points out that the need for environmental governance is increasing even as confidence in the global capacity to address this need is declining. After a general discussion of the concepts and literatures associated with “governance for sustainable development” by the editors, three chapters outline what the economics, political science, and the management literatures offer in terms of addressing the “governance deficit” and achieving sustainable development. Chapters 5–7 then respond to the decentralizing tendencies associated with neoliberalism and globalizations and discuss the increasingly important roles played by transnational nonstate and market-oriented actors in environmental governance. These chapters make clear that environmental governance must be designed to coincide with specific issue areas and empirical contexts. Public actors, business firms, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) all have roles to play in achieving effective global governance. These chapters are the most cutting-edge aspect of the work. Much of contemporary conversation regarding global environment governance is about context-specific, nonstate-driven, consensual and voluntary alternatives to hierarchical and regulatory-oriented governance, including discussions of network governance and “new instruments” of environmental governance such as codes of conduct, certification schemes, eco-taxes, tradable permits, voluntary agreements, and eco-labels (see, for example, Jordan, Wurzel, and Zito 2003; Jordan and Schout 2006). This volume explains that inadequate environmental governance is a consequence of governments’ as well as market failures. Hybrid arrangements in which several forms of governance …
Regional Economic Organizations and Conventional Security Challenges, 2017
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this p... more The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
Before the promulgation of the 1987 Single European Act (SEA), the European Communities (EC) had ... more Before the promulgation of the 1987 Single European Act (SEA), the European Communities (EC) had undertaken three multi-year Environmental Action Programmes and generated more than 100 measures to coordinate and harmonize environmental protection. However, the 1957 Treaty of Rome, the legal basis for the organization, did not authorize joint action in the area of environmental protection. Pre-1987 environmental legislation was justified on the grounds that divergent environmental regulations in the Member States distorted trade competition and constituted a non-tariff barrier to free trade, and that the Treaty specified as objectives the promotion of "an accelerated raising of the standard of living" and the improvement of the living and working conditions of EC citizens. The SEA represented a seachange in the legal mandate of the organization in that it amended the Treaty of Rome to require that environmental protection be incorporated into every aspect of Community polic...
During the past 25 years, there have been several efforts by developing countries to establish re... more During the past 25 years, there have been several efforts by developing countries to establish regional economic institutions to address their poverty, underdevelopment, and external dependency. Although the economic imperatives and rationales for their creation intuitively seemed sufficient to ensure that the national political leaderships would choose to engage in whatever give-and-take was necessary to achieve their stated goals, the historical record reveals that these regional organisations have experienced uneven results at best. Several are now defunct. Why is this the case?
Some recent scholarship has focused on concerns that implementation and compliance difficulties a... more Some recent scholarship has focused on concerns that implementation and compliance difficulties are undermining the legitimacy of European Union environmental policies and even the EU itself. Other officials and analysts, however, contend that environmental policy is one of the EU's most successful policy areas. While most discuss "legitimacy" in unspecified and/or absolutist terms, it is instead a more nuanced and contested concept. This paper investigates several evolving and interacting bases of legitimacies associated with "permissive acceptance" (based upon functionalist criteria, expert and technical authority, and policy effectiveness), "appropriateness" (based upon value and norm consensus and legalization), active commitment (based upon democratic processes), and identity (based upon global leadership, among other factors). These legitimacies vary in terms of their strength, stability and durability and among the multiple European actors and institutions.
Some recent scholarship has focused on concerns that implementation and compliance difficulties a... more Some recent scholarship has focused on concerns that implementation and compliance difficulties are undermining the legitimacy of European Union environmental policies and even the EU itself. Other officials and analysts, however, contend that environmental policy is one of the EU's most successful policy areas. While most discuss "legitimacy" in unspecified and/or absolutist terms, it is instead a more nuanced and contested concept. This paper investigates several evolving and interacting bases of legitimacies associated with "permissive acceptance" (based upon functionalist criteria, expert and technical authority, and policy effectiveness), "appropriateness" (based upon value and norm consensus and legalization), active commitment (based upon democratic processes), and identity (based upon global leadership, among other factors). These legitimacies vary in terms of their strength, stability and durability and among the multiple European actors and institutions.
Regional Economic Organizations and Conventional Security Challenges
This chapter considers how and why ECOWAS decided to take on peacemaking in the Liberian Civil Wa... more This chapter considers how and why ECOWAS decided to take on peacemaking in the Liberian Civil War which began in December 1989 when the Charles Taylor-led National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) launched an attack on the Liberian-Cote d’Ivoire border. Within five months, the NPFL controlled more than 90 percent of the country, and the conflict quickly deteriorated into unspeakable levels of violence and ethnic genocide. After an ECOWAS Standing Mediation Committee failed, an ECOWAS Cease-fire Monitoring Group was created to intervene militarily. This is an example of an REO taking on peacemaking as a result of the failure of Great Power interest and global governance. Most agree that leadership in the Liberian Civil War represented a turning point in ECOWAS’ institutional development.
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