The slag pit furnace of the Trøndelag tradition for iron production is a very specific cultural-h... more The slag pit furnace of the Trøndelag tradition for iron production is a very specific cultural-historical tradition in central Norway in the Early Iron Age, but few of these iron production sites have been excavated in their entirety and there is therefore a lack of information about their size, spatial layout and organisation in the landscape. The aim of this paper is therefore to investigate how magnetic geophysical methods can be used as a way of locating, delimiting and characterising activity zones and specific archaeological features associated with this tradition of iron production. The NTNU University Museum in Trondheim performed geophysical surveys of four different iron production sites, combining topsoil volume magnetic susceptibility measurements and detailed fluxgate gradiometer surveys. Analysing and comparing the survey results with sketches and topographic survey results, as well as comparable geophysical survey data from iron production sites elsewhere in Norway, made it possible to gain new and valuable cultural-historical and methodological knowledge. The topsoil volume susceptibility measurements revealed a strong contrast between the main production areas and the natural background measurement values, often in the range of 7-27 times the median background values. The absolute highest measured values were usually in the area closest to the furnaces, and within the slag mounds. Satellites of high readings could be interpreted as roasting sites for iron ore, and even areas with known building remains related to the iron production sites had readings stronger than the median. The fluxgate gradiometer data helped to characterise individual features further, with strong geophysical contrast between features within the iron production sites and the areas surrounding them. Also, by analysing their physical placement, geophysical characteristics such as contrast, magnetic remanence and size, it was possible to gain
Norges forskningsrad 210449 Universitetsmuseet i Bergen Tromso museum - Universitetsmuseet NTNU V... more Norges forskningsrad 210449 Universitetsmuseet i Bergen Tromso museum - Universitetsmuseet NTNU Vitenskapsmuseet
Quantification of vegetation cover based on fossil pollen assemblages is valuable for proper asse... more Quantification of vegetation cover based on fossil pollen assemblages is valuable for proper assessment of past landscape dynamics. In the present investigation, the past vegetation cover around a pre-historic iron production site in the Budalen valley in central Norway was quantified using direction of vegetation change models. A set of fixed rules based on normal succession, the present vegetation and the ‘intuitively’ interpreted fossil pollen record was used to model spatially explicit changes in the vegetation of past landscapes. By comparing modelled pollen percentages with empirical fossil pollen percentages, it was possible to determine absolute plausible vegetation. According to the applied models, the pine forest within at least 1 km of the sampling site (>100 ha) was temporarily replaced with birch forest around ad 300, 800 and 1750 as a consequence of iron and charcoal production. The birch forest later re-succeeded to pine forest as pine harvest decreased at intermediate time stages.
Trends in archaeological research in iron production during the 100 years that this topic has bee... more Trends in archaeological research in iron production during the 100 years that this topic has been studied in Scandinavia are highlighted in this article. In some periods there has been a relatively high level of activity among iron production researchers; in other periods the interest has tended to wane. Why should this be so and to what extent have theoretical trends in archaeology influenced this field? From a European perspective, Sweden and Norway are uniquely placed for studies of ancient iron technology because the remains of iron production in these countries are situated in remote areas. They are preserved because there has been no activity in the forests and mountain regions to disturb them since the production sites were vacated hundreds and thousands of years ago.
Frostatinget er kjent fra skrevne kilder fra middelalderen. Representanter fra forskjellige deler... more Frostatinget er kjent fra skrevne kilder fra middelalderen. Representanter fra forskjellige deler av Trøndelag møttes årlig på dette stedet. Alderen på den juridiske organisering av Trøndelag (den siste stavelsen –lag betyr lov) er ukjent. Denne artikkelen diskuterer forskjellige indikasjoner på lovsamarbeid innen Midt-Norge forut for det historisk dokumenterte ting. Utnyttelsen av utmarksressurser så vel som militære forhold kan ha bidratt til økende behov for regulering og samarbeid. Store gravhauger og bygdeborger har blitt forbundet med ting i eldre jernalder. Det samme gjelder lokaliteter med ringtun fra yngre jernalder
Preface This book has been a long time in the making. It is an outcome of the five Norwegian Univ... more Preface This book has been a long time in the making. It is an outcome of the five Norwegian University Museums' joint research programme Forskning i Felleskap (FIF, 2010-2015), supported by the Research Council of Norway. FIF kindly facilitated a number of workshops and meetings between archaeologists, geologists and craftspeople, all with a common interest in premodern soapstone quarrying and use. The result is the chapters of this book, which are based on studies carried out over the last two decades and, for the most part, are published scientifically for the first time. We very much thank the authors for participating in this venture. We also thank several colleagues-archaeologists, geoscientists and craftspeople-that assisted the editors in peer-reviewing the chapters:
The oldest known example of large-scale soapstone exploitation in Norway is found at Kvikne (sout... more The oldest known example of large-scale soapstone exploitation in Norway is found at Kvikne (south central Norway), where quarrying took place during the pre-Roman Iron Age (5th to 1st century BC). The quarry is located in a remote area at an altitude of nearly 1000 m ASL, and is untouched by Viking Age and medieval exploitation that was so extensive elsewhere in Norway. Excavations in the 1960s suggested a production of several thousand circular vessels. Later studies revealed a separate, large extraction area for angular and irregular blanks that were distinctly different but carved with similar adze-like tools. We speculate that the latter blanks were meant for forge-stones connected to the contemporary, large-scale exploitation and processing of bog iron. Radiocarbon dating results suggest that the circular and angular extractions represent early and late pre-Roman Iron Age phases of quarrying, respectively. The tool marks suggest that iron axes were used for soapstone extractio...
Quantification of vegetation cover based on fossil pollen assemblages is valuable for proper asse... more Quantification of vegetation cover based on fossil pollen assemblages is valuable for proper assessment of past landscape dynamics. In the present investigation, the past vegetation cover around a pre-historic iron production site in the Budalen valley in central Norway was quantified using direction of vegetation change models. A set of fixed rules based on normal succession, the present vegetation and the ‘intuitively’ interpreted fossil pollen record was used to model spatially explicit changes in the vegetation of past landscapes. By comparing modelled pollen percentages with empirical fossil pollen percentages, it was possible to determine absolute plausible vegetation. According to the applied models, the pine forest within at least 1 km of the sampling site (>100 ha) was temporarily replaced with birch forest around ad 300, 800 and 1750 as a consequence of iron and charcoal production. The birch forest later re-succeeded to pine forest as pine harvest decreased at intermed...
International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management, 2012
Humans have used resources in mountain landscapes for thousands of years, but the intensity and c... more Humans have used resources in mountain landscapes for thousands of years, but the intensity and continuity of different land uses and the corresponding landscape changes are not well understood. This study examined long-term interactions between land use and landscapes in Budalen, central Norway, by using a multidisciplinary approach. Palaeoecological investigations at three sites in a north-south transect along the length of the valley indicate mowing and livestock grazing from AD 1500 to 1600. No clear signs of human-induced vegetation shifts are indicated at earlier time stages at the two southern sites. No archaeological findings support land use prior to AD 1500. Written sources give evidence for haymaking at AD 1600 and a more intense land use with summer farming followed in the eighteenth century. Land-use impact had a longer continuity at the northernmost site where furnaces for iron production and other human artefacts are dated as early as 180 BC-AD 25. These archaeological findings closely correspond to an opening of the woodland. We conclude that the intensity, diversity and continuity of land use decreased with increasing distance from permanent settlements in the lowland. The wooded grasslands probably dominated the Budalen valley also before humans started to use the land.
The slag pit furnace of the Trøndelag tradition for iron production is a very specific cultural-h... more The slag pit furnace of the Trøndelag tradition for iron production is a very specific cultural-historical tradition in central Norway in the Early Iron Age, but few of these iron production sites have been excavated in their entirety and there is therefore a lack of information about their size, spatial layout and organisation in the landscape. The aim of this paper is therefore to investigate how magnetic geophysical methods can be used as a way of locating, delimiting and characterising activity zones and specific archaeological features associated with this tradition of iron production. The NTNU University Museum in Trondheim performed geophysical surveys of four different iron production sites, combining topsoil volume magnetic susceptibility measurements and detailed fluxgate gradiometer surveys. Analysing and comparing the survey results with sketches and topographic survey results, as well as comparable geophysical survey data from iron production sites elsewhere in Norway, made it possible to gain new and valuable cultural-historical and methodological knowledge. The topsoil volume susceptibility measurements revealed a strong contrast between the main production areas and the natural background measurement values, often in the range of 7-27 times the median background values. The absolute highest measured values were usually in the area closest to the furnaces, and within the slag mounds. Satellites of high readings could be interpreted as roasting sites for iron ore, and even areas with known building remains related to the iron production sites had readings stronger than the median. The fluxgate gradiometer data helped to characterise individual features further, with strong geophysical contrast between features within the iron production sites and the areas surrounding them. Also, by analysing their physical placement, geophysical characteristics such as contrast, magnetic remanence and size, it was possible to gain
Norges forskningsrad 210449 Universitetsmuseet i Bergen Tromso museum - Universitetsmuseet NTNU V... more Norges forskningsrad 210449 Universitetsmuseet i Bergen Tromso museum - Universitetsmuseet NTNU Vitenskapsmuseet
Quantification of vegetation cover based on fossil pollen assemblages is valuable for proper asse... more Quantification of vegetation cover based on fossil pollen assemblages is valuable for proper assessment of past landscape dynamics. In the present investigation, the past vegetation cover around a pre-historic iron production site in the Budalen valley in central Norway was quantified using direction of vegetation change models. A set of fixed rules based on normal succession, the present vegetation and the ‘intuitively’ interpreted fossil pollen record was used to model spatially explicit changes in the vegetation of past landscapes. By comparing modelled pollen percentages with empirical fossil pollen percentages, it was possible to determine absolute plausible vegetation. According to the applied models, the pine forest within at least 1 km of the sampling site (>100 ha) was temporarily replaced with birch forest around ad 300, 800 and 1750 as a consequence of iron and charcoal production. The birch forest later re-succeeded to pine forest as pine harvest decreased at intermediate time stages.
Trends in archaeological research in iron production during the 100 years that this topic has bee... more Trends in archaeological research in iron production during the 100 years that this topic has been studied in Scandinavia are highlighted in this article. In some periods there has been a relatively high level of activity among iron production researchers; in other periods the interest has tended to wane. Why should this be so and to what extent have theoretical trends in archaeology influenced this field? From a European perspective, Sweden and Norway are uniquely placed for studies of ancient iron technology because the remains of iron production in these countries are situated in remote areas. They are preserved because there has been no activity in the forests and mountain regions to disturb them since the production sites were vacated hundreds and thousands of years ago.
Frostatinget er kjent fra skrevne kilder fra middelalderen. Representanter fra forskjellige deler... more Frostatinget er kjent fra skrevne kilder fra middelalderen. Representanter fra forskjellige deler av Trøndelag møttes årlig på dette stedet. Alderen på den juridiske organisering av Trøndelag (den siste stavelsen –lag betyr lov) er ukjent. Denne artikkelen diskuterer forskjellige indikasjoner på lovsamarbeid innen Midt-Norge forut for det historisk dokumenterte ting. Utnyttelsen av utmarksressurser så vel som militære forhold kan ha bidratt til økende behov for regulering og samarbeid. Store gravhauger og bygdeborger har blitt forbundet med ting i eldre jernalder. Det samme gjelder lokaliteter med ringtun fra yngre jernalder
Preface This book has been a long time in the making. It is an outcome of the five Norwegian Univ... more Preface This book has been a long time in the making. It is an outcome of the five Norwegian University Museums' joint research programme Forskning i Felleskap (FIF, 2010-2015), supported by the Research Council of Norway. FIF kindly facilitated a number of workshops and meetings between archaeologists, geologists and craftspeople, all with a common interest in premodern soapstone quarrying and use. The result is the chapters of this book, which are based on studies carried out over the last two decades and, for the most part, are published scientifically for the first time. We very much thank the authors for participating in this venture. We also thank several colleagues-archaeologists, geoscientists and craftspeople-that assisted the editors in peer-reviewing the chapters:
The oldest known example of large-scale soapstone exploitation in Norway is found at Kvikne (sout... more The oldest known example of large-scale soapstone exploitation in Norway is found at Kvikne (south central Norway), where quarrying took place during the pre-Roman Iron Age (5th to 1st century BC). The quarry is located in a remote area at an altitude of nearly 1000 m ASL, and is untouched by Viking Age and medieval exploitation that was so extensive elsewhere in Norway. Excavations in the 1960s suggested a production of several thousand circular vessels. Later studies revealed a separate, large extraction area for angular and irregular blanks that were distinctly different but carved with similar adze-like tools. We speculate that the latter blanks were meant for forge-stones connected to the contemporary, large-scale exploitation and processing of bog iron. Radiocarbon dating results suggest that the circular and angular extractions represent early and late pre-Roman Iron Age phases of quarrying, respectively. The tool marks suggest that iron axes were used for soapstone extractio...
Quantification of vegetation cover based on fossil pollen assemblages is valuable for proper asse... more Quantification of vegetation cover based on fossil pollen assemblages is valuable for proper assessment of past landscape dynamics. In the present investigation, the past vegetation cover around a pre-historic iron production site in the Budalen valley in central Norway was quantified using direction of vegetation change models. A set of fixed rules based on normal succession, the present vegetation and the ‘intuitively’ interpreted fossil pollen record was used to model spatially explicit changes in the vegetation of past landscapes. By comparing modelled pollen percentages with empirical fossil pollen percentages, it was possible to determine absolute plausible vegetation. According to the applied models, the pine forest within at least 1 km of the sampling site (>100 ha) was temporarily replaced with birch forest around ad 300, 800 and 1750 as a consequence of iron and charcoal production. The birch forest later re-succeeded to pine forest as pine harvest decreased at intermed...
International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management, 2012
Humans have used resources in mountain landscapes for thousands of years, but the intensity and c... more Humans have used resources in mountain landscapes for thousands of years, but the intensity and continuity of different land uses and the corresponding landscape changes are not well understood. This study examined long-term interactions between land use and landscapes in Budalen, central Norway, by using a multidisciplinary approach. Palaeoecological investigations at three sites in a north-south transect along the length of the valley indicate mowing and livestock grazing from AD 1500 to 1600. No clear signs of human-induced vegetation shifts are indicated at earlier time stages at the two southern sites. No archaeological findings support land use prior to AD 1500. Written sources give evidence for haymaking at AD 1600 and a more intense land use with summer farming followed in the eighteenth century. Land-use impact had a longer continuity at the northernmost site where furnaces for iron production and other human artefacts are dated as early as 180 BC-AD 25. These archaeological findings closely correspond to an opening of the woodland. We conclude that the intensity, diversity and continuity of land use decreased with increasing distance from permanent settlements in the lowland. The wooded grasslands probably dominated the Budalen valley also before humans started to use the land.
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