The purpose of this ethnographic study was to determine the norms and rules of behavior in a mult... more The purpose of this ethnographic study was to determine the norms and rules of behavior in a multi-ethnic seventh-grade classroom in an inner-city school. Data were gathered through classroom observations and interviews with the teacher. The teacher in this class stressed ethnic pride, and because the majority of the students (as well as the teacher) were African-American, an Afrocentric viewpoint was included in appropriate areas of the curriculum. The teacher also stressed that students needed to respect each other, enforcing rules concerning turn-taking and politeness. The teacher corrected students when they used Black English Vernacular (BEV) during formal classroom situations, but allowed them to use BEV when talking among themselves in informal situations.
Federal education legislation has had a major impact on US public schooling in recent years. In 2... more Federal education legislation has had a major impact on US public schooling in recent years. In 2001, US Congress passed No Child Left Behind (NCLB)into law, generating in its wake a large number of both intended and unintended consequences. Although the law is slated for reauthorization within the next few years, it is unclear at present if it would change substantially or not and, regardless, it is likely to have lasting effects on teaching and learning for many years to come. Thus, all educators and stakeholders in public education need to be informed about how NCLB translates into classroom practice, so that they can better understand how it affects students and teachers, and so that they might play a role in informing future education policy decisions.
This symposium brings together international scholars to discuss issues arising from current prac... more This symposium brings together international scholars to discuss issues arising from current practices in the design and use of language assessments for students designated as English language learners in standards-based contexts. We asked each of the contributors to comment on a particular aspect of language assessment, with a particular focus on validity. The authors use England and the United States as two case studies to demonstrate ways in which this topic is highly relevant to current and future scholarship and policy in TESOL.
This article highlights key issues surrounding the assessment and accountability mandates of No C... more This article highlights key issues surrounding the assessment and accountability mandates of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) for English language learners (ELLs). The policy requires highstakes testing of ELLs in English-a language that these students, by definition, have not yet mastered. After offering background on current federal education legislation, this article shares findings from a word frequency analysis of actual statewide exams. This analysis reveals that even academic content tests are linguistically complex, using words likely unknown by an ELL, which clarifies why testing poses unique challenges for this student population. Analyses of recent ELL performance data on high-stakes tests are also provided, which document why these students and
International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 2011
New York City is extraordinarily diverse, making it a fascinating context in which to research bi... more New York City is extraordinarily diverse, making it a fascinating context in which to research bilingual education. City schools have for generations served large numbers of immigrants and children of immigrants bilingually and only in English, making the city at once an international model for serving these students successfully and a site where tensions surrounding immigration and linguistic diversity come to the fore. Taken together, the articles in this special issue of the International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (IJBEB) delve into the successes and struggles in New York City’s efforts to serve its immigrant students. About half of all New Yorkers speak a language other than English at home, and more than a third are foreign-born (US Census 2000). The 2000 US Census lists at least 170 different languages spoken in New York City, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the United States. However, as the languages spoken by many thousands of residents fall into the ‘Other Language’ categories of the Census, this remains a dissatisfying underestimate. Instead, the Endangered Language Alliance estimates that the number of languages spoken in New York approaches 800 (Roberts 2010). Regardless, what is evident is that the city is a site of extreme linguistic and cultural diversity. It is due to the many languages spoken in New York City that its familiar nickname ‘The Big Apple’, was rechristened as ‘The Multilingual Apple’ by Garcı́a and Fishman (2002, 4), who aptly note that ‘English has never been, and cannot be considered today, New York’s vernacular’. A note on terminology: While the New York City Department of Education continues to refer to students who speak a language other than English at home and are entitled to receive language support services in school as ‘English language learners’ or ELLs, the authors in this special issue instead favor the newer term ‘emergent bilinguals’. This term, coined by Garcı́a in recent publications (Garcı́a, Kleifgen, and Falchi 2008; Garcı́a 2009; Garcı́a, this issue), promotes an ideological shift, turning attention away from English as the sole goal of the students’ learning and instead reminding us that in adding English to their linguistic repertoire these children become bilingual. Serving 1.1 million students in nearly 1700 schools, the New York City Department of Education is the largest school system in the United States (New York City Department of Education 2010a). Emergent bilinguals currently comprise 14% of all students in New York City, and another 13% received language support services in the past but are no longer considered emergent bilinguals by the city (these students are known in city schools as ‘former ELLs’). Thus, 27% of all students in city schools were enrolled in English as a second language (ESL) and/or International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism Vol. 14, No. 2, March 2011, 121 131
International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 2013
... PAL 14 Chilean Literacy Education Policies and Classroom Implementation VIVIANA GALDAMES AND ... more ... PAL 14 Chilean Literacy Education Policies and Classroom Implementation VIVIANA GALDAMES AND ... Moving Forward: Ten Guiding Principles for Teachers 262 OFELIA GARCÍA AND KATE ... Multilingual Studies (CEMS) was founded in 2003 by Professors Esther Ramani and ...
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or s... more This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
In the wake of the federal No Child Left Behind legislation, standardized tests have become incre... more In the wake of the federal No Child Left Behind legislation, standardized tests have become increasingly high-stakes. Yet English language learners (ELLs) typically score far below native English speakers, creating pressure to "teach to the test." This article shares findings from an intensive year long study in 10 New York City high schools, detailing how high-stakes tests become de facto language policy in schools. Most schools and individual educators have increased the amount of English instruction ELLs receive; however, some have instead increased native language instruction as a test preparation strategy. Curriculum and instruction focuses on test content and strategies, and English as a second language classes have become more like English language arts classes for native English speakers. In bilingual classes, tests are found to promote monolingual instruction with test translations guiding decisions about language allocation.
The most recent federal education policy in the United States, titled No Child Left Behind (NCLB)... more The most recent federal education policy in the United States, titled No Child Left Behind (NCLB), was passed into law in 2001. High-stakes testing is the core of NCLB, as tests are used to hold each school, district, and state accountable for student performance, therein affording the federal government greater control over the constitutionally decentralized national system of U.S. education. Because the tests being used are administered in English, English language learners (ELLs) typically fail to meet the law's annual progress requirements, resulting in serious consequences for the students and their schools. This article reviews research about the effects of NCLB on language policies in education. Empirical studies show that the law—which is at face value merely an educational policy—is in actuality a de facto language policy. After explaining the law's assessment mandates, this article provides analyses of the wording of NCLB from a language policy perspective. It also...
Although educational policies for emergent bilinguals in New York City schools have historically ... more Although educational policies for emergent bilinguals in New York City schools have historically supported the provision of bilingual education, the past decade has borne witness to a dramatic loss of bilingual education programs in city schools. This study examines the factors that determine language education policies adopted by school principals, through qualitative research in 10 city schools that have eliminated their bilingual education programs in recent years and replaced them with English-only programs. Our findings draw a causal link between the pressures of test-based accountability imposed by No Child Left Behind and the adoption of English-only policies in city schools. Testing and accountability are used as the justification for dismantling bilingual education programs and create a disincentive to serve emergent bilingual students, as schools are far more likely to be labeled low performing and risk sanctions such as closure simply for admitting and educating these stu...
In recent years there has been growing awareness about a sub-group of students labeled Long-Term ... more In recent years there has been growing awareness about a sub-group of students labeled Long-Term English Language Learners (LTELLs). Our study seeks to show how students who fall within the LTELL category see themselves through the lens of their lived experiences as (emergent) bilinguals, students, family/community members and transnational individuals. Countering discourses which frame these students as deficient, we apply the discourse of partiality framework as a lens through which to better understand how these students perceive themselves via their languages, ethnic-connectivity and academic trajectories. We argue that the discourse around the label can be understood as a racial project that serves to perpetuate white supremacy through the marginalization of the language practices of communities of color. We conclude by exploring how schools can take a broader view of this population to create positive learning opportunities that build on who they are and how they see themselves.
Although educational policies for emergent bilinguals in New York City schools have historically ... more Although educational policies for emergent bilinguals in New York City schools have historically supported the provision of bilingual education, the past decade has borne witness to a dramatic loss of bilingual education programs in city schools. This study examines the factors that determine language education policies adopted by school principals, through qualitative research in 10 city schools that have eliminated their bilingual education programs in recent years and replaced them with English-only programs. Our findings draw a causal link between the pressures of test-based accountability imposed by No Child Left Behind and the adoption of English-only policies in city schools. Testing and accountability are used as the justification for dismantling bilingual education programs and create a disincentive to serve emergent bilingual students, as schools are far more likely to be labeled low performing and risk sanctions such as closure simply for admitting and educating these stu...
FULL TITLE: Looking Holistically in a Climate of Partiality: Identities of Students Labeled ‘Long... more FULL TITLE: Looking Holistically in a Climate of Partiality: Identities of Students Labeled ‘Long-term English Language Learners’ Abstract: In recent years there has been growing awareness about a sub-group of students labeled ‘Long-Term English Learners’ (LTELL). While this body of literature is still developing, a general understanding of the pedagogical needs and approaches for these students is emerging. Here we seek to show how students who fall within the LTELL category see themselves through the lens of their lived experiences as (emergent) bilinguals, students, family/community members and transnational individuals. Countering discourses which frame these students as ‘semilingual’ or otherwise deficient, we apply the discourse of partiality framework as a lens through which to better understand how these students perceive themselves via their languages, ethnic-connectivity and academic trajectories. We aim to bridge students’ holistic identities with the deficit views of thi...
The purpose of this ethnographic study was to determine the norms and rules of behavior in a mult... more The purpose of this ethnographic study was to determine the norms and rules of behavior in a multi-ethnic seventh-grade classroom in an inner-city school. Data were gathered through classroom observations and interviews with the teacher. The teacher in this class stressed ethnic pride, and because the majority of the students (as well as the teacher) were African-American, an Afrocentric viewpoint was included in appropriate areas of the curriculum. The teacher also stressed that students needed to respect each other, enforcing rules concerning turn-taking and politeness. The teacher corrected students when they used Black English Vernacular (BEV) during formal classroom situations, but allowed them to use BEV when talking among themselves in informal situations.
Federal education legislation has had a major impact on US public schooling in recent years. In 2... more Federal education legislation has had a major impact on US public schooling in recent years. In 2001, US Congress passed No Child Left Behind (NCLB)into law, generating in its wake a large number of both intended and unintended consequences. Although the law is slated for reauthorization within the next few years, it is unclear at present if it would change substantially or not and, regardless, it is likely to have lasting effects on teaching and learning for many years to come. Thus, all educators and stakeholders in public education need to be informed about how NCLB translates into classroom practice, so that they can better understand how it affects students and teachers, and so that they might play a role in informing future education policy decisions.
This symposium brings together international scholars to discuss issues arising from current prac... more This symposium brings together international scholars to discuss issues arising from current practices in the design and use of language assessments for students designated as English language learners in standards-based contexts. We asked each of the contributors to comment on a particular aspect of language assessment, with a particular focus on validity. The authors use England and the United States as two case studies to demonstrate ways in which this topic is highly relevant to current and future scholarship and policy in TESOL.
This article highlights key issues surrounding the assessment and accountability mandates of No C... more This article highlights key issues surrounding the assessment and accountability mandates of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) for English language learners (ELLs). The policy requires highstakes testing of ELLs in English-a language that these students, by definition, have not yet mastered. After offering background on current federal education legislation, this article shares findings from a word frequency analysis of actual statewide exams. This analysis reveals that even academic content tests are linguistically complex, using words likely unknown by an ELL, which clarifies why testing poses unique challenges for this student population. Analyses of recent ELL performance data on high-stakes tests are also provided, which document why these students and
International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 2011
New York City is extraordinarily diverse, making it a fascinating context in which to research bi... more New York City is extraordinarily diverse, making it a fascinating context in which to research bilingual education. City schools have for generations served large numbers of immigrants and children of immigrants bilingually and only in English, making the city at once an international model for serving these students successfully and a site where tensions surrounding immigration and linguistic diversity come to the fore. Taken together, the articles in this special issue of the International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (IJBEB) delve into the successes and struggles in New York City’s efforts to serve its immigrant students. About half of all New Yorkers speak a language other than English at home, and more than a third are foreign-born (US Census 2000). The 2000 US Census lists at least 170 different languages spoken in New York City, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the United States. However, as the languages spoken by many thousands of residents fall into the ‘Other Language’ categories of the Census, this remains a dissatisfying underestimate. Instead, the Endangered Language Alliance estimates that the number of languages spoken in New York approaches 800 (Roberts 2010). Regardless, what is evident is that the city is a site of extreme linguistic and cultural diversity. It is due to the many languages spoken in New York City that its familiar nickname ‘The Big Apple’, was rechristened as ‘The Multilingual Apple’ by Garcı́a and Fishman (2002, 4), who aptly note that ‘English has never been, and cannot be considered today, New York’s vernacular’. A note on terminology: While the New York City Department of Education continues to refer to students who speak a language other than English at home and are entitled to receive language support services in school as ‘English language learners’ or ELLs, the authors in this special issue instead favor the newer term ‘emergent bilinguals’. This term, coined by Garcı́a in recent publications (Garcı́a, Kleifgen, and Falchi 2008; Garcı́a 2009; Garcı́a, this issue), promotes an ideological shift, turning attention away from English as the sole goal of the students’ learning and instead reminding us that in adding English to their linguistic repertoire these children become bilingual. Serving 1.1 million students in nearly 1700 schools, the New York City Department of Education is the largest school system in the United States (New York City Department of Education 2010a). Emergent bilinguals currently comprise 14% of all students in New York City, and another 13% received language support services in the past but are no longer considered emergent bilinguals by the city (these students are known in city schools as ‘former ELLs’). Thus, 27% of all students in city schools were enrolled in English as a second language (ESL) and/or International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism Vol. 14, No. 2, March 2011, 121 131
International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 2013
... PAL 14 Chilean Literacy Education Policies and Classroom Implementation VIVIANA GALDAMES AND ... more ... PAL 14 Chilean Literacy Education Policies and Classroom Implementation VIVIANA GALDAMES AND ... Moving Forward: Ten Guiding Principles for Teachers 262 OFELIA GARCÍA AND KATE ... Multilingual Studies (CEMS) was founded in 2003 by Professors Esther Ramani and ...
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or s... more This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
In the wake of the federal No Child Left Behind legislation, standardized tests have become incre... more In the wake of the federal No Child Left Behind legislation, standardized tests have become increasingly high-stakes. Yet English language learners (ELLs) typically score far below native English speakers, creating pressure to "teach to the test." This article shares findings from an intensive year long study in 10 New York City high schools, detailing how high-stakes tests become de facto language policy in schools. Most schools and individual educators have increased the amount of English instruction ELLs receive; however, some have instead increased native language instruction as a test preparation strategy. Curriculum and instruction focuses on test content and strategies, and English as a second language classes have become more like English language arts classes for native English speakers. In bilingual classes, tests are found to promote monolingual instruction with test translations guiding decisions about language allocation.
The most recent federal education policy in the United States, titled No Child Left Behind (NCLB)... more The most recent federal education policy in the United States, titled No Child Left Behind (NCLB), was passed into law in 2001. High-stakes testing is the core of NCLB, as tests are used to hold each school, district, and state accountable for student performance, therein affording the federal government greater control over the constitutionally decentralized national system of U.S. education. Because the tests being used are administered in English, English language learners (ELLs) typically fail to meet the law's annual progress requirements, resulting in serious consequences for the students and their schools. This article reviews research about the effects of NCLB on language policies in education. Empirical studies show that the law—which is at face value merely an educational policy—is in actuality a de facto language policy. After explaining the law's assessment mandates, this article provides analyses of the wording of NCLB from a language policy perspective. It also...
Although educational policies for emergent bilinguals in New York City schools have historically ... more Although educational policies for emergent bilinguals in New York City schools have historically supported the provision of bilingual education, the past decade has borne witness to a dramatic loss of bilingual education programs in city schools. This study examines the factors that determine language education policies adopted by school principals, through qualitative research in 10 city schools that have eliminated their bilingual education programs in recent years and replaced them with English-only programs. Our findings draw a causal link between the pressures of test-based accountability imposed by No Child Left Behind and the adoption of English-only policies in city schools. Testing and accountability are used as the justification for dismantling bilingual education programs and create a disincentive to serve emergent bilingual students, as schools are far more likely to be labeled low performing and risk sanctions such as closure simply for admitting and educating these stu...
In recent years there has been growing awareness about a sub-group of students labeled Long-Term ... more In recent years there has been growing awareness about a sub-group of students labeled Long-Term English Language Learners (LTELLs). Our study seeks to show how students who fall within the LTELL category see themselves through the lens of their lived experiences as (emergent) bilinguals, students, family/community members and transnational individuals. Countering discourses which frame these students as deficient, we apply the discourse of partiality framework as a lens through which to better understand how these students perceive themselves via their languages, ethnic-connectivity and academic trajectories. We argue that the discourse around the label can be understood as a racial project that serves to perpetuate white supremacy through the marginalization of the language practices of communities of color. We conclude by exploring how schools can take a broader view of this population to create positive learning opportunities that build on who they are and how they see themselves.
Although educational policies for emergent bilinguals in New York City schools have historically ... more Although educational policies for emergent bilinguals in New York City schools have historically supported the provision of bilingual education, the past decade has borne witness to a dramatic loss of bilingual education programs in city schools. This study examines the factors that determine language education policies adopted by school principals, through qualitative research in 10 city schools that have eliminated their bilingual education programs in recent years and replaced them with English-only programs. Our findings draw a causal link between the pressures of test-based accountability imposed by No Child Left Behind and the adoption of English-only policies in city schools. Testing and accountability are used as the justification for dismantling bilingual education programs and create a disincentive to serve emergent bilingual students, as schools are far more likely to be labeled low performing and risk sanctions such as closure simply for admitting and educating these stu...
FULL TITLE: Looking Holistically in a Climate of Partiality: Identities of Students Labeled ‘Long... more FULL TITLE: Looking Holistically in a Climate of Partiality: Identities of Students Labeled ‘Long-term English Language Learners’ Abstract: In recent years there has been growing awareness about a sub-group of students labeled ‘Long-Term English Learners’ (LTELL). While this body of literature is still developing, a general understanding of the pedagogical needs and approaches for these students is emerging. Here we seek to show how students who fall within the LTELL category see themselves through the lens of their lived experiences as (emergent) bilinguals, students, family/community members and transnational individuals. Countering discourses which frame these students as ‘semilingual’ or otherwise deficient, we apply the discourse of partiality framework as a lens through which to better understand how these students perceive themselves via their languages, ethnic-connectivity and academic trajectories. We aim to bridge students’ holistic identities with the deficit views of thi...
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