What is the time course of cross-language activation in deaf sign–print bilinguals? Prior studies... more What is the time course of cross-language activation in deaf sign–print bilinguals? Prior studies demonstrating cross-language activation in deaf bilinguals used paradigms that would allow strategic or conscious translation. This study investigates whether cross-language activation can be eliminated by reducing the time available for lexical processing. Deaf ASL–English bilinguals and hearing English monolinguals viewed pairs of English words and judged their semantic similarity. Half of the stimuli had phonologically related translations in ASL, but participants saw only English words. We replicated prior findings of cross-language activation despite the introduction of a much faster rate of presentation. Further, the deaf bilinguals were as fast or faster than hearing monolinguals despite the fact that the task was in their second language. The results allow us to rule out the possibility that deaf ASL–English bilinguals only activate ASL phonological forms when given ample time for strategic or conscious translation across their two languages. doi:10.1017/S136672891500067X
Research on proficient bilinguals has demonstrated that both languages are always active, even wh... more Research on proficient bilinguals has demonstrated that both languages are always active, even when only one is required. The coactivation of the two languages creates both competition and convergence, facilitating the processing of cognate words, but slowing lexical access when there is a requirement to engage control mechanisms to select the target language. Critically, these consequences are evident in the native language (L1) as well as in the second language (L2). The present study questioned whether L1 changes can be detected at early stages of L2 learning and how they are modulated by L2 proficiency. Native English speakers learning Spanish performed an English (L1) lexical decision task that included cognates while event-related potentials were recorded. They also performed verbal fluency, working memory, and inhibitory control tasks. A group of matched monolinguals performed the same tasks in English only. The results revealed that intermediate learners demonstrate a reduced N400 for cognates compared with noncognates in English (L1), and an emerging effect is visually present in beginning learners as well; however, no behavioral cognate effect was present for either group. In addition, slower reaction times in English (L1) are related to a larger cognate N400 magnitude in English (L1) and Spanish (L2), and to better inhibitory control for learners but not for monolinguals. The results suggest that contrary to the claim that L2 affects L1 only when L2 speakers are highly proficient, L2 learning begins to impact L1 early in the development of the L2 skill.
Recent evidence demonstrates that American Sign Language (ASL) signs are active during print word... more Recent evidence demonstrates that American Sign Language (ASL) signs are active during print word recognition in deaf bilinguals who are highly proficient in both ASL and English. In the present study, we investigate whether signs are active during print word recognition in two groups of unbalanced bilinguals: deaf ASL-dominant and hearing English-dominant bilinguals. Participants judged the semantic relatedness of word pairs in English. Critically, a subset of both the semantically related and unrelated English word pairs had phonologically related translations in ASL, but participants were never shown any ASL signs during the experiment. Deaf ASLdominant bilinguals (Experiment 1) were faster when semantically related English word pairs had similar form translations in ASL, but slower when semantically unrelated words had similar form translations in ASL, indicating that ASL signs are engaged during English print word recognition in these ASL-dominant signers. Hearing English-domin...
In this article we discuss the role of desirable difficulties in vocabulary learning from two per... more In this article we discuss the role of desirable difficulties in vocabulary learning from two perspectives, one having to do with identifying conditions of learning that impose initial challenges to the learner but then benefit later retention and transfer, and the other having to do with the role of certain difficulties that are intrinsic to language processes, are engaged during word learning, and reflect how language is understood and produced. From each perspective we discuss evidence that supports the notion that difficulties in learning and imposed costs to language processing may produce benefits because they are likely to increase conceptual understanding. We then consider the consequences of these processes for actual second-language learning and suggest that some of the domain-general cognitive advantages that have been reported for proficient bilinguals may reflect difficulties imposed by the learning process, and by the requirement to negotiate cross-language competition, that are broadly desirable. As Alice Healy and her collaborators were perhaps the first to demonstrate, research on desirable difficulties in vocabulary and language learning holds the promise of bringing together research traditions on memory and language that have much to offer each other.
Clark (1987) offers a dual coding alternative to the conceptual hypothesis that Potter, proposed ... more Clark (1987) offers a dual coding alternative to the conceptual hypothesis that Potter, proposed to explain the ease with which people can read and understand rebus sentences in which a picture replaces a noun. We present theoretical and empirical reasons for positing a conceptual representation that is distinct from the representation of an object's name and from a mental image of it. The hierarchical conceptual model has greater explanatory and predictive power and is more parsimonious overall than Clark's alternative.
Abstract What does it take to become a skilled bilingual? Past research on the acquisition of a s... more Abstract What does it take to become a skilled bilingual? Past research on the acquisition of a second language (L2) by adult learners has focused on the degree to which the attainment of proficiency is constrained by the age at which L2 exposure occurs (eg, Johnson & Newport 1989; Birdsong 1999; Flege 2003), by the degree of transfer from the first language (L1) to the L2 (eg, MacWhinney 1997; Pienemann 1998), and by the context of acquisition (eg, Freed 1995). Most of this work has addressed issues of representation. The general ...
Research on bilingual memory suggests that words in each language are stored in separate lexical ... more Research on bilingual memory suggests that words in each language are stored in separate lexical systems, but that concepts are stored in a representation common to both languages. When individuals are in early phases of acquiring a second language, lexical ...
What is the time course of cross-language activation in deaf sign–print bilinguals? Prior studies... more What is the time course of cross-language activation in deaf sign–print bilinguals? Prior studies demonstrating cross-language activation in deaf bilinguals used paradigms that would allow strategic or conscious translation. This study investigates whether cross-language activation can be eliminated by reducing the time available for lexical processing. Deaf ASL–English bilinguals and hearing English monolinguals viewed pairs of English words and judged their semantic similarity. Half of the stimuli had phonologically related translations in ASL, but participants saw only English words. We replicated prior findings of cross-language activation despite the introduction of a much faster rate of presentation. Further, the deaf bilinguals were as fast or faster than hearing monolinguals despite the fact that the task was in their second language. The results allow us to rule out the possibility that deaf ASL–English bilinguals only activate ASL phonological forms when given ample time for strategic or conscious translation across their two languages. doi:10.1017/S136672891500067X
Research on proficient bilinguals has demonstrated that both languages are always active, even wh... more Research on proficient bilinguals has demonstrated that both languages are always active, even when only one is required. The coactivation of the two languages creates both competition and convergence, facilitating the processing of cognate words, but slowing lexical access when there is a requirement to engage control mechanisms to select the target language. Critically, these consequences are evident in the native language (L1) as well as in the second language (L2). The present study questioned whether L1 changes can be detected at early stages of L2 learning and how they are modulated by L2 proficiency. Native English speakers learning Spanish performed an English (L1) lexical decision task that included cognates while event-related potentials were recorded. They also performed verbal fluency, working memory, and inhibitory control tasks. A group of matched monolinguals performed the same tasks in English only. The results revealed that intermediate learners demonstrate a reduced N400 for cognates compared with noncognates in English (L1), and an emerging effect is visually present in beginning learners as well; however, no behavioral cognate effect was present for either group. In addition, slower reaction times in English (L1) are related to a larger cognate N400 magnitude in English (L1) and Spanish (L2), and to better inhibitory control for learners but not for monolinguals. The results suggest that contrary to the claim that L2 affects L1 only when L2 speakers are highly proficient, L2 learning begins to impact L1 early in the development of the L2 skill.
Recent evidence demonstrates that American Sign Language (ASL) signs are active during print word... more Recent evidence demonstrates that American Sign Language (ASL) signs are active during print word recognition in deaf bilinguals who are highly proficient in both ASL and English. In the present study, we investigate whether signs are active during print word recognition in two groups of unbalanced bilinguals: deaf ASL-dominant and hearing English-dominant bilinguals. Participants judged the semantic relatedness of word pairs in English. Critically, a subset of both the semantically related and unrelated English word pairs had phonologically related translations in ASL, but participants were never shown any ASL signs during the experiment. Deaf ASLdominant bilinguals (Experiment 1) were faster when semantically related English word pairs had similar form translations in ASL, but slower when semantically unrelated words had similar form translations in ASL, indicating that ASL signs are engaged during English print word recognition in these ASL-dominant signers. Hearing English-domin...
In this article we discuss the role of desirable difficulties in vocabulary learning from two per... more In this article we discuss the role of desirable difficulties in vocabulary learning from two perspectives, one having to do with identifying conditions of learning that impose initial challenges to the learner but then benefit later retention and transfer, and the other having to do with the role of certain difficulties that are intrinsic to language processes, are engaged during word learning, and reflect how language is understood and produced. From each perspective we discuss evidence that supports the notion that difficulties in learning and imposed costs to language processing may produce benefits because they are likely to increase conceptual understanding. We then consider the consequences of these processes for actual second-language learning and suggest that some of the domain-general cognitive advantages that have been reported for proficient bilinguals may reflect difficulties imposed by the learning process, and by the requirement to negotiate cross-language competition, that are broadly desirable. As Alice Healy and her collaborators were perhaps the first to demonstrate, research on desirable difficulties in vocabulary and language learning holds the promise of bringing together research traditions on memory and language that have much to offer each other.
Clark (1987) offers a dual coding alternative to the conceptual hypothesis that Potter, proposed ... more Clark (1987) offers a dual coding alternative to the conceptual hypothesis that Potter, proposed to explain the ease with which people can read and understand rebus sentences in which a picture replaces a noun. We present theoretical and empirical reasons for positing a conceptual representation that is distinct from the representation of an object's name and from a mental image of it. The hierarchical conceptual model has greater explanatory and predictive power and is more parsimonious overall than Clark's alternative.
Abstract What does it take to become a skilled bilingual? Past research on the acquisition of a s... more Abstract What does it take to become a skilled bilingual? Past research on the acquisition of a second language (L2) by adult learners has focused on the degree to which the attainment of proficiency is constrained by the age at which L2 exposure occurs (eg, Johnson & Newport 1989; Birdsong 1999; Flege 2003), by the degree of transfer from the first language (L1) to the L2 (eg, MacWhinney 1997; Pienemann 1998), and by the context of acquisition (eg, Freed 1995). Most of this work has addressed issues of representation. The general ...
Research on bilingual memory suggests that words in each language are stored in separate lexical ... more Research on bilingual memory suggests that words in each language are stored in separate lexical systems, but that concepts are stored in a representation common to both languages. When individuals are in early phases of acquiring a second language, lexical ...
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Papers by Judith Kroll
cross-language activation in deaf bilinguals used paradigms that would allow strategic or conscious translation. This study
investigates whether cross-language activation can be eliminated by reducing the time available for lexical processing. Deaf
ASL–English bilinguals and hearing English monolinguals viewed pairs of English words and judged their semantic
similarity. Half of the stimuli had phonologically related translations in ASL, but participants saw only English words. We
replicated prior findings of cross-language activation despite the introduction of a much faster rate of presentation. Further,
the deaf bilinguals were as fast or faster than hearing monolinguals despite the fact that the task was in their second
language. The results allow us to rule out the possibility that deaf ASL–English bilinguals only activate ASL phonological
forms when given ample time for strategic or conscious translation across their two languages.
doi:10.1017/S136672891500067X
cross-language activation in deaf bilinguals used paradigms that would allow strategic or conscious translation. This study
investigates whether cross-language activation can be eliminated by reducing the time available for lexical processing. Deaf
ASL–English bilinguals and hearing English monolinguals viewed pairs of English words and judged their semantic
similarity. Half of the stimuli had phonologically related translations in ASL, but participants saw only English words. We
replicated prior findings of cross-language activation despite the introduction of a much faster rate of presentation. Further,
the deaf bilinguals were as fast or faster than hearing monolinguals despite the fact that the task was in their second
language. The results allow us to rule out the possibility that deaf ASL–English bilinguals only activate ASL phonological
forms when given ample time for strategic or conscious translation across their two languages.
doi:10.1017/S136672891500067X