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Ingrid Schoon

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Ingrid Schoon is Prof. of Human Development and Social Policy at University College London, Social Research Institute. She is a Fellow of the British Academy of Social Sciences (FAcSS) and Since 2015 she Social Science Centre (WZB) in Berlin. Her research focuses on the study of risk and resilience in the transition to adulthood, social inequalities in skill development, attainment and wellbeing.

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Anneli Marttila

Columbia University

Curtin University, Perth

Flinders University of South Australia

Institute of Education, University College London

Dr Robert Muller

Flinders University of South Australia

The University of Auckland

Queen Mary, University of London

Linda Liebenberg

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Papers by Ingrid Schoon

Growing up in poverty: the role of human capability and resilience

Psychologist, 2008

OP62 Does smoking, drinking, physical activity, and self-reported health mediate the relation between education and voting during midlife? Evidence from the 1958 national child development study

inequalities can drive both the population level impact and the distributional impacts of policie... more inequalities can drive both the population level impact and the distributional impacts of policies is not well understood. In this study we use an existing health economic model of alcohol brief interventions (BIs) to explore how socioeconomic inequalities in different model inputs can affect conclusions about value for money and health inequality and contrast these with similar results for a smoking cessation model. Methods BI policies were assessed using the Sheffield Alcohol Policy Model. Previous analysis has shown a national BI programme for alcohol to be both cost-effective and inequalityimproving. We examined whether these conclusions changed under three scenarios: i) individually excluding socioeconomic gradients in each model input, ii) raising levels of uptake to those in the 'best' group, iii) using different baseline populations. Impacts on total population health and health inequality were assessed using incremental population Net Health Benefit (NHB) and incremental 'Equally Distributed Equivalent' (EDE) health respectively. Results are compared with those from similar analyses undertaken using a smoking cessation model. Results A national BI programme improved both health (+43,016 QALYs) and EDE (+50,792 QALYs), reducing health inequalities. Excluding gradients in model inputs had generally small effects on NHB (+0% to +10.4%) but a larger effect on EDE (-7.9% to +15.7%), although not enough to change the conclusion that the policy is inequality reducing. Increasing delivery to the 'best' level would increase EDE to a greater extent than NHB (+51.6% and +43.5% respectively), further reducing inequalities. Conclusion Unlike smoking cessation programmes, BIs are likely to be both cost-effective and reduce inequalities. Considering potential inequalities across all stages of intervention delivery is important when considering the impact of policies on health inequalities, even if it may not substantially affect decisions based solely on cost-effectiveness. The relative importance of socioeconomic gradients in different stages is likely to vary between risk factors and settings.

Self‐control in early childhood: Individual differences in sensitivity to early parenting

Journal of Personality, Oct 13, 2020

Objective: This study extends existing research on the role of infant temperament as a moderator ... more Objective: This study extends existing research on the role of infant temperament as a moderator of the association between the quality of parent-child relationships and children's self-control during the pre-school years. In particular, we focus on the potential moderating role of a dimension of early infant temperament known as behavioural inhibition. Assumptions formulated within the diathesis-stress, the vantage-sensitivity and the differential susceptibility models of individual differences in environmental sensitivity are tested. Method: Data are from the Millennium Cohort Study, a nationally representative birth cohort of 18,552 infants born in the UK during 2000/01. Results: The results show that the quality of both mother-child and father-child relationships are associated with children's development of self-control in early childhood. Additionally, individual differences in infant temperament moderate the association between mother-child conflict and children's development of self-control. Specifically, high behavioural inhibition shows a vantagesensitivity pattern for mother-child conflict. Conclusion: Aspects of both mothers' and fathers' relationships with their young children independently predict variations in selfcontrol. This study also provides an initial indication that behavioural inhibition, a temperamental trait best-known for being a risk factor for anxiety, may provide small benefits in relation to young children's self-control development.

Parental meta-emotion, attachment to parents, and personal agency in adolescents

Journal of Family Psychology, Sep 1, 2022

No aspects of the study were pre-registered. A preliminary version of this manuscript was present... more No aspects of the study were pre-registered. A preliminary version of this manuscript was presented at the Symposium "Building bonds, building blocks: Investigating attachment in adolescents' lives" of the 17 th European Association for Research on Adolescence conference (EARA 2020) in September 2020 in Porto, Portugal (Online format).

Let’s Work Together: Towards Interdisciplinary Collaboration

Routledge eBooks, Oct 18, 2018

Key issues in the study of human development, such as minimizing the impact of poverty and depriv... more Key issues in the study of human development, such as minimizing the impact of poverty and deprivation and improving health, wellbeing and attainment for all, require a collective effort by different disciplines. Research and funding agencies around the world have recognised the need for inter-disciplinary research (IDR) in solving important problems and accelerating scientific discovery. Yet there are persisting barriers and challenges to interdisciplinary collaboration and research including institutional structures and training, the organisation and funding of research, publication culture and assessment criteria. This paper discusses the strengths and limitations of doing IDR , advocating a collaborative approach and associated institutional as well as individual level change.

Trends in young adults' mental distress and its association with employment: Evidence from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 1993–2019

Preventive Medicine, Sep 1, 2021

Few have examined how employment is linked to trends in mental health among young adults across e... more Few have examined how employment is linked to trends in mental health among young adults across economic contexts in more recent years. To better understand the burden of non-employment and mental distress in this age group, this study examines the association of short-term (<1 year) and long-term (1+ year) out-of-work status with mental health across three recessions among young men and women ages 18-34. We report sex-stratified estimates of frequent mental distress (FMD), out-of-work status, and their association through adjusted prevalence ratios across 27 cycles of the U.S. Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (1993-2019). We found that FMD increased by 112% in men and 120% in women between 1993-2019, with 55% (men) and 44% (women) of this increase occurring between 2016 and 2019. Short-term (PR men = 1.53, 95%CI 1.46-1.61; PR women = 1.34, 95%CI 1.29-1.40) and longterm (PR men = 1.61, 95%CI 1.51-1.71; PR women = 1.28, 95%CI 1.22-1.34) out-of-work status were each associated with a higher risk of FMD during this period. The magnitude of associations between long-term out-of-work status and FMD significantly varied across cycles, and was strongest after the 1991 recession in men and the 2008 recession in women. Whereas employment represents an important determinant of mental health among young adults, particularly during economic downturns, it did not suffice to explain the rise in mental distress in this age group in more recent years.

Stability and Change in Adolescents’ Sense of Agency: Contributions of Sex, Multiple Risk, Pandemic Stress, and Attachment to Parents

Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Mar 24, 2023

Although literature states that individual, relational, and contextual factors contribute to adol... more Although literature states that individual, relational, and contextual factors contribute to adolescents' sense of agency, more research is needed to clarify and understand how adolescents develop this belief over time. The current study examined the stability/change trajectories of the sense of agency during adolescence, specifically across high school, analyzing whether attachment to parents over time, adolescents' sex, cumulative risk in baseline, and pandemic-related stress explained these trajectories. The sample included 467 Portuguese adolescents (40.7% were males; Mage = 15.58 years, SD = 0.80), evaluated three times across 18 months. This work yielded three significant findings. First, adolescents' sense of agency significantly increased over time, with significant between-subject variance at the initial levels but not at the growth rate. Second, attachment to parents consistently links to adolescents' sense of agency across time, despite the differential contributions from attachment to mothers and fathers. Third, boys reported greater growth in the sense of agency than girls. Adolescents' cumulative risk at T1 predicted lower initial levels of sense of agency, whereas higher pandemic-related stress predicted less growth of the sense of agency. These findings emphasize the contributions of individual and family characteristics and the role of the broader social context in shaping the development of adolescents' sense of agency. The findings underline the need to consider further the differential influences of adolescents' relationships with mothers and fathers to understand changes in adolescents' sense of agency.

Developmental trajectories of emotional disengagement from schoolwork and their longitudinal associations in England

British Educational Research Journal, Aug 26, 2016

This study identified the varied ways in which students' emotional disengagement and engagement w... more This study identified the varied ways in which students' emotional disengagement and engagement with schoolwork typically developed between the ages of 14 and 16 years, in the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England. Using growth mixture modelling we found eight main trajectories, where students in four trajectories had either increasing or stable emotional disengagement with schoolwork (41% of the sample). Using propensity score matching to create groups balanced on a wide range of covariates at Wave 1, we compared students who disengaged to their counterparts without increasing or stable disengagement, to identify the longitudinal associations between disengaging emotionally from schoolwork and behavioural engagement, psychological wellbeing, substance use, career pathways and achievement. Using linear and binary logistic regressions, we established that students in the disengagement trajectories developed lower achievement across compulsory secondary school, had lower levels of educational participation and more participation in employment at age 17 years. In young adulthood (age 19 -20 years) they were less likely to be in university, and more likely to be unemployed. During secondary schooling, they also engaged more frequently in substance use, and developed poorer psychological wellbeing which persisted in the year after compulsory school. However, after compulsory school the differences in substance use dissipated, and in young adulthood students in most of the disengagement trajectories has relatively similar life satisfaction to their counterparts, suggesting that (except perhaps for the unemployed students) they found a way to develop healthily and happily after leaving the schoolwork environments they were emotionally disengaged from.

Conceptualizing Youth Transitions in Times of Economic Upheaval and Uncertainty: A Life Course Perspective

Cambridge University Press eBooks, Aug 31, 2017

Living with COVID-19: Subjective Well-Being in the Second Phase of the Pandemic

Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Jul 4, 2022

While there is ample evidence of the decline in mental health among youth during the onset of the... more While there is ample evidence of the decline in mental health among youth during the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, less is known about the determinants of recovery, which is the focus of this study. Drawing on a stress process framework, this study examines the associations of changes in direct, pandemic-related, and indirect, lockdown-related stressors with life satisfaction. A novel representative, longitudinal sample of British 16-25-year-olds is used, drawing on 6 data collections between February 2021 to May 2022 (N = 6000, 51% female, 24% ethnic minority, 46% in work, 35% with higher education). Using linear fixed-effects regression models, the findings suggest a substantial improvement in life satisfaction among youth. An increasing frequency of social contacts, receding worries about career prospects and job skills learning contributed significantly to increases in life satisfaction, whereas direct, health-related COVID-19 stressors did not affect life satisfaction. Sub-group analysis suggests that women's, adolescents', and students' life satisfaction responded more strongly to the stressors considered in this study. The findings highlight the positive effects of less stringent lockdown restrictions, economic recovery, and opportunities for job skills learning on youth's happiness.

Insights Gained on the Great Recession's Effects

Cambridge University Press eBooks, Aug 31, 2017

Does the trauma associated with out-of-home care transmit across generations? Evidence from the 1970 British Cohort Study during a major health pandemic

BMJ Open, Apr 1, 2022

Objectives Children with experience of out-of-home care (OHC) are at an increased risk of adverse... more Objectives Children with experience of out-of-home care (OHC) are at an increased risk of adverse outcomes in later life, including poorer levels of psycho-social adjustment. Less is known about the intergenerational transmission of the trauma associated with OHC and psychosocial outcomes in mid-adulthood, particularly during a major health pandemic. Design To examine if there is evidence of intergenerational transmission of trauma associated with OHC in mid-adulthood, we used data from the 1970 British Cohort Study 2020 COVID-19 Survey. Participants Cases were defined as cohort members (CMs) who had themselves experienced OHC (OHC1) and those whose mother reported to have been in OHC (OHC2). Among the 5320 CMs who participated in the second COVID-19 Survey, we have OHC information for n=4236. Our analytical samples range from n=2472 to 3864 depending on outcome: the largest sample comprised 105 (2.5%) CMs with direct OHC experience (OHC1), 93 (2.2%) CMs with a mother who had OHC experience (OHC2) and 3666 CMs with no OHC experience (OHC0). Outcome measures Self-reported outcomes at age 50 included indicators of depression, health and psychological well-being. Multivariate logistic regression models control for socioeconomic childhood background and current circumstances. Results Compared with the majority OHC0, the OHC1 group report higher levels of depression (OR 2.18 (95% CI 1.09 to 4.36) p<.05) and are at a greater risk of poor mental (OR 2.23 (95% CI 1.24 to 4.02) p<0.01) and general health (OR 3.32 (95% CI 1.65 to 6.67) p<0.001) during the pandemic. OHC2 was more than twice as likely to report poor mental health prepandemic (OR 2.52 (95% CI 1.37 to 4.64) p<0.01), but not during the pandemic. Conclusion Children of care leaver mothers (OHC2) appear to be better adjusted than those who were themselves in care (OHC1), although compared with those without care experience (OHC0) both groups had an increased risk of poorer adult outcomes. However, the findings point to both continuity and discontinuity of disadvantage. BMJ Open: first published as 10.1136/bmjopen-2021-056736 on

Understanding and Reducing NEET: Perspectives of Schoolteachers and Career Advice Service Providers

Youth

There are growing concerns about the number of children and young people who are “Not in Educatio... more There are growing concerns about the number of children and young people who are “Not in Education, Employment, or Training” (NEET). The literature suggests that further research is warranted to help understand what can be done to reduce the number of pupils at risk of NEET, to enable a successful transition into education, employment, or training. In this study, the views of schoolteachers (who provide careers support in schools and make NEET referrals) and career advice service providers (who receive NEET referrals from schoolteachers) are gauged to gain better insight regarding existing careers provision in schools and the efficacy of NEET referral processes. Using a qualitative interview approach, two schoolteachers from the West Midlands (UK) and three career advice service providers were recruited for the study. Thematic analysis of the interviews with schoolteachers identified four superordinate themes: Pupil Contact and Support; A Whole-School Approach to Careers Guidance; B...

Social Inequalities in Young People's Mental Distress During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Do Psychosocial Resource Factors Matter?

Frontiers in Public Health, 2022

The COVID-19 pandemic disproportionately affected young people aged 16–25 years and has brought a... more The COVID-19 pandemic disproportionately affected young people aged 16–25 years and has brought about a major increase in mental health problems. Although there is persisting evidence regarding SES differences in mental health status, there is still little knowledge of the processes linking SES to young people's mental health, in particular during the current pandemic. Guided by a stress process model this study examines the role of different psychosocial resource factors in mitigating the vulnerability to mental distress among disadvantaged young people and specifies a range of possible mediating pathways. The research draws on a nationally representative longitudinal sample of 16–25 year-olds who participated in the Youth Economic Activity and Health (YEAH) online survey conducted in the UK between February and October 2021. Mental health was measured using the Hopkins Symptom Checklist for anxiety and depression. Socio-economic disadvantage was indicated by parental education...

Mental distress among young adults in Great Britain: long-term trends and early changes during the COVID-19 pandemic

Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 2021

Purpose In Great Britain, few studies documented mental health trends in young adults in the year... more Purpose In Great Britain, few studies documented mental health trends in young adults in the years preceding 2020, the mental health dimensions affected, and how these compare with changes observed during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods Long-term trends in mental health among 16–34 year old men and women between 1991 and 2018, and changes between 2018–19 and July–September 2020 were examined using all waves from the British Household Panel Study (1991–2008), the UK Household Longitudinal Study (2009–20), and the first five UKHLS COVID-19 waves administered in April, May, June, July, and September 2020. Findings are based on the GHQ-12 continuous score (0–36), clinically significant cases (4 + /12) and severe cases (7 + /12) for mental distress, and item endorsements. Results Between 1991 and 2018, the prevalence of cases (4 + /12) increased from 14–22% to 19–32% across groups. Increases were largest in women aged 16–24. In April 2020, the risk of caseness (4 + /12) increased across g...

Care leavers in early adulthood: How do they fare in Britain, Finland and Germany?

Children and Youth Services Review, 2018

In this paper we examine the longer term outcomes of young people who experienced out of home car... more In this paper we examine the longer term outcomes of young people who experienced out of home care (OHC) as children, in Britain, Germany and Finland, countries characterised by different welfare regimes. While there is some evidence on immediate transitions after leaving care (up to age 21), there is less evidence on experiences around age 30, a phase of early adulthood. Drawing on existing longitudinal data for general population samples we focus on outcomes related to education, employment, family, health and receipt of welfare benefits for those who were ever in care and those who were not. We find evidence for continuing disadvantage regarding education and employment for those who were in care as children, but also indications of subjective wellbeing and commitment to family life-possibly a reflection of 'normality' and efforts to 'fit in' as parents. Surprisingly, despite variations in welfare system and differences in the scope and quality of available data, trends were similar in each of the countries, suggesting that none provide adequately for the needs of care experienced young adults. The findings point towards the need for a revised conceptualisation of the notion of 'independence' which has to take into account the manifold and changing relationships between individuals and the state. Instead of a 'cliff edge' approach there should be support for a more gradual shift from 'dependence' to 'independence' enabling those with care experience to develop their full potential. In interpreting the findings, limitations of the available data has to be acknowledged, pointing to the need for generating harmonised and longitudinal data on vulnerable subpopulations to enable effective monitoring of needs and provision.

A Multination Study of Socioeconomic Inequality in Expectations for Progression to Higher Education

American Educational Research Journal, 2016

Persistent inequalities in educational expectations across societies are a growing concern. Recen... more Persistent inequalities in educational expectations across societies are a growing concern. Recent research has explored the extent to which inequalities in education are due to primary effects (i.e., achievement differentials) versus secondary effects (i.e., choice behaviors net of achievement). We explore educational expectations in order to consider whether variations in primary and secondary effects are associated with country variation in curricular and ability stratification. We use evidence from the PISA 2003 database to test the hypothesis that (a) greater between-school academic stratification would be associated with stronger relationships between socioeconomic status and educational expectations and (b) when this effect is decomposed, achievement differentials would explain a greater proportion of this relationship in countries with greater stratification. Results supported these hypotheses.

Co-Development of Educational Expectations and Effort: Their Antecedents and Role as Predictors of Academic Success

Research in Human Development, 2017

This study examined the co-development of educational expectations and effort (conceptualised as ... more This study examined the co-development of educational expectations and effort (conceptualised as indicators of individual agency) during secondary school and assessed their role as predictors of academic success, controlling for prior academic attainment and parental social background. Drawing on data collected for the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England (LSYPE), a nationally representative sample, the findings suggest reciprocal effects between expectations and effort, shaped by family SES and prior academic attainment. Agency is not a static construct, it is not fully determined by family SES and students adapt their functioning and choices in response to informative feedback loops.

Preventive Interventions for Children and Adolescents

European Psychologist, 2015

This systematic review examines the meta-analytic evidence on four broad categories of preventive... more This systematic review examines the meta-analytic evidence on four broad categories of preventive interventions for children and adolescents, including: mentoring, service learning, outdoor adventure, and social and emotional learning (SEL) programs. There were 15 metaanalytic studies which fit the criteria for inclusion. For each intervention type, the target population, main implementation strategies, and meta-analytic evidence are reported. The review considers the effectiveness of these preventive interventions across various content areas and populations, providing an indication of which type of intervention has the strongest effects on what outcomes, where are they most beneficial, and for whom are they most promising. Experimental evidence has demonstrated that mentoring, service learning, outdoor adventure, and SEL programs can all promote positive development and prevent problematic behaviors. Overall, service learning, outdoor adventure, and SEL programs have shown small to large effects on a variety of outcomes, while mentoring has shown small but significant effects. The review concludes with a discussion of key criteria that should be considered when choosing a particular program type.

Let’s Work Together: Towards Interdisciplinary Collaboration

Research in Human Development, 2015

Key issues in the study of human development, such as minimizing the impact of poverty and depriv... more Key issues in the study of human development, such as minimizing the impact of poverty and deprivation and improving health, wellbeing and attainment for all, require a collective effort by different disciplines. Research and funding agencies around the world have recognised the need for inter-disciplinary research (IDR) in solving important problems and accelerating scientific discovery. Yet there are persisting barriers and challenges to interdisciplinary collaboration and research including institutional structures and training, the organisation and funding of research, publication culture and assessment criteria. This paper discusses the strengths and limitations of doing IDR , advocating a collaborative approach and associated institutional as well as individual level change.

Growing up in poverty: the role of human capability and resilience

Psychologist, 2008

OP62 Does smoking, drinking, physical activity, and self-reported health mediate the relation between education and voting during midlife? Evidence from the 1958 national child development study

inequalities can drive both the population level impact and the distributional impacts of policie... more inequalities can drive both the population level impact and the distributional impacts of policies is not well understood. In this study we use an existing health economic model of alcohol brief interventions (BIs) to explore how socioeconomic inequalities in different model inputs can affect conclusions about value for money and health inequality and contrast these with similar results for a smoking cessation model. Methods BI policies were assessed using the Sheffield Alcohol Policy Model. Previous analysis has shown a national BI programme for alcohol to be both cost-effective and inequalityimproving. We examined whether these conclusions changed under three scenarios: i) individually excluding socioeconomic gradients in each model input, ii) raising levels of uptake to those in the 'best' group, iii) using different baseline populations. Impacts on total population health and health inequality were assessed using incremental population Net Health Benefit (NHB) and incremental 'Equally Distributed Equivalent' (EDE) health respectively. Results are compared with those from similar analyses undertaken using a smoking cessation model. Results A national BI programme improved both health (+43,016 QALYs) and EDE (+50,792 QALYs), reducing health inequalities. Excluding gradients in model inputs had generally small effects on NHB (+0% to +10.4%) but a larger effect on EDE (-7.9% to +15.7%), although not enough to change the conclusion that the policy is inequality reducing. Increasing delivery to the 'best' level would increase EDE to a greater extent than NHB (+51.6% and +43.5% respectively), further reducing inequalities. Conclusion Unlike smoking cessation programmes, BIs are likely to be both cost-effective and reduce inequalities. Considering potential inequalities across all stages of intervention delivery is important when considering the impact of policies on health inequalities, even if it may not substantially affect decisions based solely on cost-effectiveness. The relative importance of socioeconomic gradients in different stages is likely to vary between risk factors and settings.

Self‐control in early childhood: Individual differences in sensitivity to early parenting

Journal of Personality, Oct 13, 2020

Objective: This study extends existing research on the role of infant temperament as a moderator ... more Objective: This study extends existing research on the role of infant temperament as a moderator of the association between the quality of parent-child relationships and children's self-control during the pre-school years. In particular, we focus on the potential moderating role of a dimension of early infant temperament known as behavioural inhibition. Assumptions formulated within the diathesis-stress, the vantage-sensitivity and the differential susceptibility models of individual differences in environmental sensitivity are tested. Method: Data are from the Millennium Cohort Study, a nationally representative birth cohort of 18,552 infants born in the UK during 2000/01. Results: The results show that the quality of both mother-child and father-child relationships are associated with children's development of self-control in early childhood. Additionally, individual differences in infant temperament moderate the association between mother-child conflict and children's development of self-control. Specifically, high behavioural inhibition shows a vantagesensitivity pattern for mother-child conflict. Conclusion: Aspects of both mothers' and fathers' relationships with their young children independently predict variations in selfcontrol. This study also provides an initial indication that behavioural inhibition, a temperamental trait best-known for being a risk factor for anxiety, may provide small benefits in relation to young children's self-control development.

Parental meta-emotion, attachment to parents, and personal agency in adolescents

Journal of Family Psychology, Sep 1, 2022

No aspects of the study were pre-registered. A preliminary version of this manuscript was present... more No aspects of the study were pre-registered. A preliminary version of this manuscript was presented at the Symposium "Building bonds, building blocks: Investigating attachment in adolescents' lives" of the 17 th European Association for Research on Adolescence conference (EARA 2020) in September 2020 in Porto, Portugal (Online format).

Let’s Work Together: Towards Interdisciplinary Collaboration

Routledge eBooks, Oct 18, 2018

Key issues in the study of human development, such as minimizing the impact of poverty and depriv... more Key issues in the study of human development, such as minimizing the impact of poverty and deprivation and improving health, wellbeing and attainment for all, require a collective effort by different disciplines. Research and funding agencies around the world have recognised the need for inter-disciplinary research (IDR) in solving important problems and accelerating scientific discovery. Yet there are persisting barriers and challenges to interdisciplinary collaboration and research including institutional structures and training, the organisation and funding of research, publication culture and assessment criteria. This paper discusses the strengths and limitations of doing IDR , advocating a collaborative approach and associated institutional as well as individual level change.

Trends in young adults' mental distress and its association with employment: Evidence from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 1993–2019

Preventive Medicine, Sep 1, 2021

Few have examined how employment is linked to trends in mental health among young adults across e... more Few have examined how employment is linked to trends in mental health among young adults across economic contexts in more recent years. To better understand the burden of non-employment and mental distress in this age group, this study examines the association of short-term (<1 year) and long-term (1+ year) out-of-work status with mental health across three recessions among young men and women ages 18-34. We report sex-stratified estimates of frequent mental distress (FMD), out-of-work status, and their association through adjusted prevalence ratios across 27 cycles of the U.S. Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (1993-2019). We found that FMD increased by 112% in men and 120% in women between 1993-2019, with 55% (men) and 44% (women) of this increase occurring between 2016 and 2019. Short-term (PR men = 1.53, 95%CI 1.46-1.61; PR women = 1.34, 95%CI 1.29-1.40) and longterm (PR men = 1.61, 95%CI 1.51-1.71; PR women = 1.28, 95%CI 1.22-1.34) out-of-work status were each associated with a higher risk of FMD during this period. The magnitude of associations between long-term out-of-work status and FMD significantly varied across cycles, and was strongest after the 1991 recession in men and the 2008 recession in women. Whereas employment represents an important determinant of mental health among young adults, particularly during economic downturns, it did not suffice to explain the rise in mental distress in this age group in more recent years.

Stability and Change in Adolescents’ Sense of Agency: Contributions of Sex, Multiple Risk, Pandemic Stress, and Attachment to Parents

Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Mar 24, 2023

Although literature states that individual, relational, and contextual factors contribute to adol... more Although literature states that individual, relational, and contextual factors contribute to adolescents' sense of agency, more research is needed to clarify and understand how adolescents develop this belief over time. The current study examined the stability/change trajectories of the sense of agency during adolescence, specifically across high school, analyzing whether attachment to parents over time, adolescents' sex, cumulative risk in baseline, and pandemic-related stress explained these trajectories. The sample included 467 Portuguese adolescents (40.7% were males; Mage = 15.58 years, SD = 0.80), evaluated three times across 18 months. This work yielded three significant findings. First, adolescents' sense of agency significantly increased over time, with significant between-subject variance at the initial levels but not at the growth rate. Second, attachment to parents consistently links to adolescents' sense of agency across time, despite the differential contributions from attachment to mothers and fathers. Third, boys reported greater growth in the sense of agency than girls. Adolescents' cumulative risk at T1 predicted lower initial levels of sense of agency, whereas higher pandemic-related stress predicted less growth of the sense of agency. These findings emphasize the contributions of individual and family characteristics and the role of the broader social context in shaping the development of adolescents' sense of agency. The findings underline the need to consider further the differential influences of adolescents' relationships with mothers and fathers to understand changes in adolescents' sense of agency.

Developmental trajectories of emotional disengagement from schoolwork and their longitudinal associations in England

British Educational Research Journal, Aug 26, 2016

This study identified the varied ways in which students' emotional disengagement and engagement w... more This study identified the varied ways in which students' emotional disengagement and engagement with schoolwork typically developed between the ages of 14 and 16 years, in the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England. Using growth mixture modelling we found eight main trajectories, where students in four trajectories had either increasing or stable emotional disengagement with schoolwork (41% of the sample). Using propensity score matching to create groups balanced on a wide range of covariates at Wave 1, we compared students who disengaged to their counterparts without increasing or stable disengagement, to identify the longitudinal associations between disengaging emotionally from schoolwork and behavioural engagement, psychological wellbeing, substance use, career pathways and achievement. Using linear and binary logistic regressions, we established that students in the disengagement trajectories developed lower achievement across compulsory secondary school, had lower levels of educational participation and more participation in employment at age 17 years. In young adulthood (age 19 -20 years) they were less likely to be in university, and more likely to be unemployed. During secondary schooling, they also engaged more frequently in substance use, and developed poorer psychological wellbeing which persisted in the year after compulsory school. However, after compulsory school the differences in substance use dissipated, and in young adulthood students in most of the disengagement trajectories has relatively similar life satisfaction to their counterparts, suggesting that (except perhaps for the unemployed students) they found a way to develop healthily and happily after leaving the schoolwork environments they were emotionally disengaged from.

Conceptualizing Youth Transitions in Times of Economic Upheaval and Uncertainty: A Life Course Perspective

Cambridge University Press eBooks, Aug 31, 2017

Living with COVID-19: Subjective Well-Being in the Second Phase of the Pandemic

Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Jul 4, 2022

While there is ample evidence of the decline in mental health among youth during the onset of the... more While there is ample evidence of the decline in mental health among youth during the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, less is known about the determinants of recovery, which is the focus of this study. Drawing on a stress process framework, this study examines the associations of changes in direct, pandemic-related, and indirect, lockdown-related stressors with life satisfaction. A novel representative, longitudinal sample of British 16-25-year-olds is used, drawing on 6 data collections between February 2021 to May 2022 (N = 6000, 51% female, 24% ethnic minority, 46% in work, 35% with higher education). Using linear fixed-effects regression models, the findings suggest a substantial improvement in life satisfaction among youth. An increasing frequency of social contacts, receding worries about career prospects and job skills learning contributed significantly to increases in life satisfaction, whereas direct, health-related COVID-19 stressors did not affect life satisfaction. Sub-group analysis suggests that women's, adolescents', and students' life satisfaction responded more strongly to the stressors considered in this study. The findings highlight the positive effects of less stringent lockdown restrictions, economic recovery, and opportunities for job skills learning on youth's happiness.

Insights Gained on the Great Recession's Effects

Cambridge University Press eBooks, Aug 31, 2017

Does the trauma associated with out-of-home care transmit across generations? Evidence from the 1970 British Cohort Study during a major health pandemic

BMJ Open, Apr 1, 2022

Objectives Children with experience of out-of-home care (OHC) are at an increased risk of adverse... more Objectives Children with experience of out-of-home care (OHC) are at an increased risk of adverse outcomes in later life, including poorer levels of psycho-social adjustment. Less is known about the intergenerational transmission of the trauma associated with OHC and psychosocial outcomes in mid-adulthood, particularly during a major health pandemic. Design To examine if there is evidence of intergenerational transmission of trauma associated with OHC in mid-adulthood, we used data from the 1970 British Cohort Study 2020 COVID-19 Survey. Participants Cases were defined as cohort members (CMs) who had themselves experienced OHC (OHC1) and those whose mother reported to have been in OHC (OHC2). Among the 5320 CMs who participated in the second COVID-19 Survey, we have OHC information for n=4236. Our analytical samples range from n=2472 to 3864 depending on outcome: the largest sample comprised 105 (2.5%) CMs with direct OHC experience (OHC1), 93 (2.2%) CMs with a mother who had OHC experience (OHC2) and 3666 CMs with no OHC experience (OHC0). Outcome measures Self-reported outcomes at age 50 included indicators of depression, health and psychological well-being. Multivariate logistic regression models control for socioeconomic childhood background and current circumstances. Results Compared with the majority OHC0, the OHC1 group report higher levels of depression (OR 2.18 (95% CI 1.09 to 4.36) p<.05) and are at a greater risk of poor mental (OR 2.23 (95% CI 1.24 to 4.02) p<0.01) and general health (OR 3.32 (95% CI 1.65 to 6.67) p<0.001) during the pandemic. OHC2 was more than twice as likely to report poor mental health prepandemic (OR 2.52 (95% CI 1.37 to 4.64) p<0.01), but not during the pandemic. Conclusion Children of care leaver mothers (OHC2) appear to be better adjusted than those who were themselves in care (OHC1), although compared with those without care experience (OHC0) both groups had an increased risk of poorer adult outcomes. However, the findings point to both continuity and discontinuity of disadvantage. BMJ Open: first published as 10.1136/bmjopen-2021-056736 on

Understanding and Reducing NEET: Perspectives of Schoolteachers and Career Advice Service Providers

Youth

There are growing concerns about the number of children and young people who are “Not in Educatio... more There are growing concerns about the number of children and young people who are “Not in Education, Employment, or Training” (NEET). The literature suggests that further research is warranted to help understand what can be done to reduce the number of pupils at risk of NEET, to enable a successful transition into education, employment, or training. In this study, the views of schoolteachers (who provide careers support in schools and make NEET referrals) and career advice service providers (who receive NEET referrals from schoolteachers) are gauged to gain better insight regarding existing careers provision in schools and the efficacy of NEET referral processes. Using a qualitative interview approach, two schoolteachers from the West Midlands (UK) and three career advice service providers were recruited for the study. Thematic analysis of the interviews with schoolteachers identified four superordinate themes: Pupil Contact and Support; A Whole-School Approach to Careers Guidance; B...

Social Inequalities in Young People's Mental Distress During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Do Psychosocial Resource Factors Matter?

Frontiers in Public Health, 2022

The COVID-19 pandemic disproportionately affected young people aged 16–25 years and has brought a... more The COVID-19 pandemic disproportionately affected young people aged 16–25 years and has brought about a major increase in mental health problems. Although there is persisting evidence regarding SES differences in mental health status, there is still little knowledge of the processes linking SES to young people's mental health, in particular during the current pandemic. Guided by a stress process model this study examines the role of different psychosocial resource factors in mitigating the vulnerability to mental distress among disadvantaged young people and specifies a range of possible mediating pathways. The research draws on a nationally representative longitudinal sample of 16–25 year-olds who participated in the Youth Economic Activity and Health (YEAH) online survey conducted in the UK between February and October 2021. Mental health was measured using the Hopkins Symptom Checklist for anxiety and depression. Socio-economic disadvantage was indicated by parental education...

Mental distress among young adults in Great Britain: long-term trends and early changes during the COVID-19 pandemic

Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 2021

Purpose In Great Britain, few studies documented mental health trends in young adults in the year... more Purpose In Great Britain, few studies documented mental health trends in young adults in the years preceding 2020, the mental health dimensions affected, and how these compare with changes observed during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods Long-term trends in mental health among 16–34 year old men and women between 1991 and 2018, and changes between 2018–19 and July–September 2020 were examined using all waves from the British Household Panel Study (1991–2008), the UK Household Longitudinal Study (2009–20), and the first five UKHLS COVID-19 waves administered in April, May, June, July, and September 2020. Findings are based on the GHQ-12 continuous score (0–36), clinically significant cases (4 + /12) and severe cases (7 + /12) for mental distress, and item endorsements. Results Between 1991 and 2018, the prevalence of cases (4 + /12) increased from 14–22% to 19–32% across groups. Increases were largest in women aged 16–24. In April 2020, the risk of caseness (4 + /12) increased across g...

Care leavers in early adulthood: How do they fare in Britain, Finland and Germany?

Children and Youth Services Review, 2018

In this paper we examine the longer term outcomes of young people who experienced out of home car... more In this paper we examine the longer term outcomes of young people who experienced out of home care (OHC) as children, in Britain, Germany and Finland, countries characterised by different welfare regimes. While there is some evidence on immediate transitions after leaving care (up to age 21), there is less evidence on experiences around age 30, a phase of early adulthood. Drawing on existing longitudinal data for general population samples we focus on outcomes related to education, employment, family, health and receipt of welfare benefits for those who were ever in care and those who were not. We find evidence for continuing disadvantage regarding education and employment for those who were in care as children, but also indications of subjective wellbeing and commitment to family life-possibly a reflection of 'normality' and efforts to 'fit in' as parents. Surprisingly, despite variations in welfare system and differences in the scope and quality of available data, trends were similar in each of the countries, suggesting that none provide adequately for the needs of care experienced young adults. The findings point towards the need for a revised conceptualisation of the notion of 'independence' which has to take into account the manifold and changing relationships between individuals and the state. Instead of a 'cliff edge' approach there should be support for a more gradual shift from 'dependence' to 'independence' enabling those with care experience to develop their full potential. In interpreting the findings, limitations of the available data has to be acknowledged, pointing to the need for generating harmonised and longitudinal data on vulnerable subpopulations to enable effective monitoring of needs and provision.

A Multination Study of Socioeconomic Inequality in Expectations for Progression to Higher Education

American Educational Research Journal, 2016

Persistent inequalities in educational expectations across societies are a growing concern. Recen... more Persistent inequalities in educational expectations across societies are a growing concern. Recent research has explored the extent to which inequalities in education are due to primary effects (i.e., achievement differentials) versus secondary effects (i.e., choice behaviors net of achievement). We explore educational expectations in order to consider whether variations in primary and secondary effects are associated with country variation in curricular and ability stratification. We use evidence from the PISA 2003 database to test the hypothesis that (a) greater between-school academic stratification would be associated with stronger relationships between socioeconomic status and educational expectations and (b) when this effect is decomposed, achievement differentials would explain a greater proportion of this relationship in countries with greater stratification. Results supported these hypotheses.

Co-Development of Educational Expectations and Effort: Their Antecedents and Role as Predictors of Academic Success

Research in Human Development, 2017

This study examined the co-development of educational expectations and effort (conceptualised as ... more This study examined the co-development of educational expectations and effort (conceptualised as indicators of individual agency) during secondary school and assessed their role as predictors of academic success, controlling for prior academic attainment and parental social background. Drawing on data collected for the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England (LSYPE), a nationally representative sample, the findings suggest reciprocal effects between expectations and effort, shaped by family SES and prior academic attainment. Agency is not a static construct, it is not fully determined by family SES and students adapt their functioning and choices in response to informative feedback loops.

Preventive Interventions for Children and Adolescents

European Psychologist, 2015

This systematic review examines the meta-analytic evidence on four broad categories of preventive... more This systematic review examines the meta-analytic evidence on four broad categories of preventive interventions for children and adolescents, including: mentoring, service learning, outdoor adventure, and social and emotional learning (SEL) programs. There were 15 metaanalytic studies which fit the criteria for inclusion. For each intervention type, the target population, main implementation strategies, and meta-analytic evidence are reported. The review considers the effectiveness of these preventive interventions across various content areas and populations, providing an indication of which type of intervention has the strongest effects on what outcomes, where are they most beneficial, and for whom are they most promising. Experimental evidence has demonstrated that mentoring, service learning, outdoor adventure, and SEL programs can all promote positive development and prevent problematic behaviors. Overall, service learning, outdoor adventure, and SEL programs have shown small to large effects on a variety of outcomes, while mentoring has shown small but significant effects. The review concludes with a discussion of key criteria that should be considered when choosing a particular program type.

Let’s Work Together: Towards Interdisciplinary Collaboration

Research in Human Development, 2015

Key issues in the study of human development, such as minimizing the impact of poverty and depriv... more Key issues in the study of human development, such as minimizing the impact of poverty and deprivation and improving health, wellbeing and attainment for all, require a collective effort by different disciplines. Research and funding agencies around the world have recognised the need for inter-disciplinary research (IDR) in solving important problems and accelerating scientific discovery. Yet there are persisting barriers and challenges to interdisciplinary collaboration and research including institutional structures and training, the organisation and funding of research, publication culture and assessment criteria. This paper discusses the strengths and limitations of doing IDR , advocating a collaborative approach and associated institutional as well as individual level change.